Energy Raw Materials Research Articles

N-GRAM KULLANILARAK HAMMADDE ARZ-TALEP İLİŞKİSİNİN ANALİZİ: KROM MADENİ ÖRNEĞİ

Depending on the strategic importance of the substance, the supply-demand relationship of the raw material has become remarkably important during the times of crisis. The type of raw material played an important role in this relationship from time to time. After the Industrial Revolution, some raw materials, especially in heavy industry and defense industry, became important due to their geography and the effect of the reserve amount. In some cases, issues such as supply security of these raw materials have caused serious security concerns and have even threatened the national survivability of some countries. Today, especially energy raw materials have undertaken such a mission, especially after the Industrial Revolution, industrial raw materials have been important during the two great war periods and the cold war period. One of these raw materials is chrome. In this study, the n-gram analysis of “chromium”, which is one of the important raw materials after its discovery in the 18th century, was carried out and its relationship with the important political events was analyzed with n-gram analysis. Using the interface provided by Google for the N-gram analysis, an analysis covering approximately the last hundred and fifty years was carried out in March 2020. The analysis was carried out within the scope of the corpus from 1850-2018, which is registered in the "Google books" database. As the browsing language, English, German, Russian, Italian and French languages were chosen, which were widely used in this period and available in the google n-gram analysis interface. 3 was chosen as the softening factor. As a result of the analysis, it was observed that the results of the n-gram analysis showed a high frequency of use in the two major world wars, especially where the raw material was an important factor. Chromium, which has an important place in the defense industry and has an important use in the steel industry and armored material production, has seen a considerable frequency of use in these periods. It was observed that the N-gram values also gave remarkable results for periods corresponding to important military-political events after the World War II. When all the findings are evaluated together, it is concluded that it is possible to investigate the relationship of raw material supply-demand relations with political events by n-gram analysis.

Factors of achieving and ensuring energy security in the context of national and EuroAtlantic security

Energy security, alongside with industrial, food, societal, environmental and sustainable development, information, cyber, economic, defense and national order security, etc., is part of the concept of national security of a state. The level of security of a state is the ability of that state to aggregate resources internally and gain or maintain access to external economic resources. Energy security means being ensured in terms of raw material sources, control of transportation and distribution routes and alternatives. Sufficient and available raw material resources are an urgent prerequisite for achieving energy security. Any longer interruption of energy supply has a negative effect on the economic growth, the political stability and the welfare of the citizens of a state. The following elements of energy security instability can endanger a state’s energy security: risks (physical, economic, geopolitical, geostrategic, social, environmental protection, etc.); threats (terrorist action, political, industrial, economic and national instability, armed conflicts, piracy, etc.); dangers (lack of energy supply and/or raw materials, the finite nature of energy resources, use of energy as a pressure instrument or energy weapon, use of energy revenues to support undemocratic regimes, high energy costs for developing countries and global climate change) and vulnerabilities (natural and/or anthropogenic hazards). For the purpose to ensure the stability of national and EuroAtlantic security, the following factors are proposed by authors to achieve and ensure energy security: 25 proposed way to achieving energy security; 8 proposed way to ensuring energy security, and 9 proposed scenarios to quantification energy security almost complete. The final conclusion is: the energy security of a state is in fact the national security of that state.

Методичний підхід до обґрунтування оптимальних техніко-економічних характеристик виробництва біодизеля з мікроводоростей

Global experience shows that one of the important directions in overcoming the external energy dependence and mitigating its negative consequences for the country is the intensification of the use of its own resource base. Such a measure for Ukraine can be production of analogues of petroleum motor fuel from biological raw materials, namely biodiesel and biobenzine. A significant obstacle in the course of intensification of the use of the existing resource base is the lack of a scientifically based vision of the inland development of technologies for the cultivation and conversion of energy biofeedstock into motor fuel. The article is aimed at developing a methodical approach (based on the provisions of economic theory) to the gradual substantiation of optimal technical and economic characteristics of production for the cultivation and processing of microalgae to biodiesel under the conditions of existing climatic restrictions. The developed methodical approach includes the substantiation of the following: choice of raw materials, choice of method and technology of cultivation, characteristics of cultivation technology, and directly the technical and economic characteristics of production. According to the developed methodical approach, it is proved that microalgae is considered as the energy raw material of the future, while the types of microalgae of the genus Chlorella, and above all the species Chlorella vulgaris, meet the requirements of industrial cultivation the most. The more acceptable for use in the climate of Ukraine method of microalgae cultivation is cultivation in photobioreactors (PBR). The technical and economic indicators of the industrial complex for the cultivation and processing of microalgae in biodiesel indicate the expediency of practical application of the developed methodical approach. The gradual substantiation of the choice of raw materials, the method and technology of cultivation of microalgae when applying the traditional conversion of the biomass allowed to ensure the optimality of technical and economic characteristics of biodiesel production in the climatic conditions of Ukraine.

Pellets based on biofuels

Laboratory analyzes showed that the wood chips had a higher bulk density and a significantly lower ash content than wood pellets produced by the company technological process company Pelletia-cz. using an annular granulator with a pellet outlet temperature of 80-90 ° C. The water content and calorific value of the wood chips were slightly lower than that of the wood pellets. The content of volatile combustibles and the elemental composition of the two compared energy raw materials did not differ significantly. On the contrary, significant differences were found in herbal pellets (from winter wheat straw, winter rye straw and from whole triticale) produced by the identical process. It was shown that both the plant material and the addition of 3 wt. clay flours (binders) affect their parameters. For example, the proportion of fine material by the addition of a binder was significantly reduced in rye (to 0.17% by weight) and triticale pellets (to 0.04% by weight). On the other hand, the disadvantage of adding clay flour as a binder additive is the increase in the ash content, which reduces the calorific value of the pellets. The heat of combustion of pellets made of wood materials was about 2.5 MJ / kg higher than that of herbal pellets. Combustion of pellets from the three types of herbs monitored produces more emissions of chlorine and nitrogen oxides contaminants than wood samples relative to wood samples. The chlorine content in ashes from herbal pellets compared to ashes from wood materials was about 50 times higher. The nitrogen content in the compared raw materials was about 5–15 times higher for herbs.

Торговля лесными материалами Киевской губернии в первой половине ХIX в.

The article is devoted to the analysis of the reasons for the deterioration of the environmental situation in Ukraine related to trade in forest materials. Periodic floods occur due to disregard for the need to preserve forests. In the first half of the 19th century, the Russian Empire offered raw materials for import and export, including timber and products of primary wood processing from state forests. Executive institutions monitored the increase in sources of tax revenues to the treasury. Taxes were levied on both business activities related to timber trade, and primary and secondary processing. At the end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th centuries, the development of the Black Sea Fleet remained a matter of national importance, for the needs of which huge areas of oak and pine forests were allocated in the Kyiv province. Local governments immediately complied with imperial instructions regarding the army, provincial and county administrations, providing their needs. The priority for the authorities was to provide the military with weapons, transport, and heating. There were cases of neglect of the local populations’ interests, whose needs were opposed by the military and the administration. Private initiative concerning forests as a source of income often led to mass felling of heating, energy raw materials for distilleries and sugar factories. The newest industries at that time brought superprofits, which resulted not only in the emergence of new social classes and industrial relations, the foundations of the Ukrainian national consciousness, but also a change in attitudes toward Mother Nature. The formation of industrial society was due to the slow growth of welfare of employees, and the accelerated disappearance of age-old forests.

Development and Intensity of Mutual Trade between the Visegrad Group and the Russian Federation

Abstract Russian's position in the foreign trade relations of the Visegrad Group countries has a long history. Russian Federation is an important trading partner for them, especially in the import of energy raw materials. Poland is the most active trading partner for the Russian Federation within the Visegrad Group. In 2018, the three most exported items of the Visegrad Group to the Russian Federation were machinery and nuclear reactors, cars, and electrical machinery. Mineral fuels accounted for 85 % of the Visegrad Group imports from the Russian Federation. The trade intensity between the Visegrad Group countries and the Russian Federation in 2014 - 2018 was higher than one, except for the Czech Republic. That indicates that the Russian Federation has exported relatively more goods to Slovakia, Poland and Hungary than to the rest of the world.

Food Security in the Context of Liquid Biofuels Production

A crucial factor that determines the development of production and consumption markets for biofuels is the choice of raw materials that can ensure the highest possible production efficiency, the lowest cost and the smallest emission of harmful substances to the atmosphere during all production stages. Considerations underlying the development of biofuel production have been discussed as well as the theoretical mechanisms linking the generation of biofuels to the level of production and the variability of prices of agricultural raw products. The aim of this study has been to identify the scale at which energy raw materials originating from agriculture are used for liquid biofuels production and to explore their impact on food security. The study used public statistical data (OECD-FAO and IndexMundi). The time span of the analysis was from 2005 to 2018. First-generation biofuels based on food raw materials (cereal grains, root crops, sugarcane and vegetable oils) are becoming increasingly competitive with food production recent years have been a period of the dynamic growth in production of liquid biofuels. In 2018, the global production of these substances reached 167.9 billion litres (bioethanol and biodiesel together), consuming 16.1% of maize grain, 1.7% of wheat grain, 3.3% of grain of other feed grains and 13.5% of vegetable oil.

DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN STANDARDS FOR ENERGY EFFICIENCY OF INDUSTRIAL ENTERPRISES WITHIN THE EUROPEAN UNION POLICY

This study is aimed at identifying the weaknesses and strengths of the mechanism for managing industrial energy efficiency (EE) under the EU policy. It is of interest not only for countries consuming energy raw materials but also for its suppliers, since they are to predict the situation on the markets and follow global trends in energy saving and environmental protection. Within the framework of the research, the methods of analogies and comparisons are used to determine the costs of switching industrial enterprises to the EE principles. The modeling method is applied to five companies in the EU, the USA, Russia, and China. By comparing the existing mechanism for EE regulating, excellent results for the EU industrial companies can be observed. They are characterized by the achievement of a high level of energy saving (10-12%) at low costs. For most US companies, an adequate level of potential energy conservation can be noticed. Russian industrial enterprises are characterized by low energy saving at a huge investment cost. For companies in China, favorable conditions are created to achieve efficient energy conservation, however, the cost for EE remains high.

How Selected Energy Commodity Prices Volatility Impacts Gross Domestic Product (GDP) Fluctuation with Respect to Selected European Countries

The article examines price volatility of the following energy raw materials: uranium, coal, crude oil and natural gas, and its influence on GDP fluctuation with regard to selected European countries. The study was carried out using linear regression approach, in which the volatility of raw materials prices was determined as independent variables and GDP fluctuation as a dependent variable. The article examines 33 European countries and the examined period covered 28 years (from 1990 to 2018). As demonstrated in the study, energy raw materials prices volatility influences GDP fluctuation, especially in the countries involved in their extraction and processing. Attention was also drawn to the fact that uranium and coal are the most significant energy raw materials for the European countries. In the case of crude oil, its volatility turned out to be significant only for two countries, i.e. Norway and the Russian Federation. It was a surprise that natural gas prices volatility slightly affects GDP fluctuation in selected European countries.

Cleaning of fine asphaltite by oil agglomeration process

ABSTRACT In Turkey, asphaltite deposits are located in the Southeastern Anatolia region in the form of fleets around the Sirnak province and its environs. According to the research, although the lower thermal values of Sirnak asphaltites are between about 11–24 MJ/Kg, the ash contents are between 35% and 55% and the total sulfur rates are between 3% and 8%. Asphaltite with high-ash content ratios can be cleaned by applying coal preparation and enrichment methods and made into high-quality energy raw materials with higher calorific value. Most fine-grained coals are disposed of without use or any economic consideration and cause environmental pollution. The oil agglomeration method, which is one of the methods of ore enrichment used to clean very fine coals, can be applied for coal samples. In this study, chemical and sieve analyzes of asphaltite samples taken from the Seguruk and Avgamasya mine sites operating within the borders of the Sirnak province were carried out and oil agglomeration enrichment method was applied with different types of oil and ash content were reduced. Under the conditions determined, the ash content of the Seguruk asphaltite sample called sample-A was reduced from 45.14% to 19.91% and the ash content of the Avgamasya asphaltite sample called Sample-B was reduced from 43.65% to 18.72%.

Перспективи використання композиційного рідкого палива в енергетиці

Uninterrupted supplying of the national economy with gas, oil, coal, electric and thermal energy is one of the conditions for guaranteeing its economic and political independence and national security. The enterprises of power engineering, working on traditional hydrocarbon energy resources, in particular on solid fuel (coal), annually produce tens millions tons of ash and slag waste and hundreds of millions of cubic meters of gaseous emissions. The consequences of coal using as an energy carrier are the most significant for the environment and human health (in comparison with other fuels). In the case of coal combustion, nitrogen and sulfur-containing (NOx and SOx) oxides, volatile organic compounds (ash and dust), large amounts of carbon dioxide (CO2) and carbon monoxide (CO) gases per unit of energy produced, as well as various traces of metals can be spread over large areas and have a strong influence on human health. As a promising approach to reduce the harmful impact on the environment and to increase the efficiency of thermal power plants, it is proposed to use composite liquid fuel (CLF) instead of pulverized and layerwise combustion of coal. The use of composite liquid fuels based on coal is promising for several reasons. First, as a basis, one can take coals of different grades, in particular, brown coal, the use of which as an energy raw materials is connected with certain difficulties due to their high moisture content and the tendency to spontaneous combustion, as well as coal mined by a hydraulic method, its small classes and coal sludge. Second, with the appropriate selection of components, it is possible to obtain fuel with specified properties and use it in various power units. At the same time, the use of CLF makes it possible to increase the completeness of combustion of solid fuel particles due to the effect of "microexplosion" of suspension droplets, while the maximal combustion temperature decreases here, and, accordingly, the emissions of soot, benzo(a)pyrene, and nitrogen oxides are reduced. The transition of coal-fired power plants from traditional solid fuel (coal) to composite liquid fuels will solve several global problems. The first is the utilization of a wide class of waste from coal and oil refining. This will enable one not only to utilize the already accumulated waste, but also to prevent the accumulation of waste generated again. The second is connected with the decrease in the concentration of anthropogenic emissions from coal energy enterprises (SOx by 40%, NOx by 20%), which will lead to the decrease in negative impact on the environment. The third is the rational use of natural resources. This can lead to saving the fuel costs alone by hundreds of millions of UAH per year.

Technologies to assist in the energy transition to the next century

Energy recovery from waste treatment and growing biomass is of great significance for the energy management and sustainable energy supply. It is shown that biomass and various wastes containing carbon are able to significantly contribute to the energy sector. We describe a possible scenario for the energy development of an European country of the future. In addition to solar, wind, and hydrogen energy, priority should also be given to generating energy using small-sized gasifiers. First, it is sustainable energy since biomass and household waste are always available. Second, this approach will allow us to launch local electric power grids instead of the unified state and interstate grids, which will reduce up to three times the consumption of energy raw materials and financial resources. Third, a new design of electric motors, namely torus motors, will allow one almost halve electricity consumption and open a gateway to new technologies.

Lightweight Concrete Manufacturing Technology Based on Waste Energy Raw Materials Alkaline-Activated

This article focuses on the compression strength of lightweight concrete based on alkaline-activated waste materials. The problem is important not only because of the possibility of disposal of excessive amount of building or industrial waste, but also because of the decreasing amount of natural aggregate deposits. Apart from the problem of the decreasing amount of natural aggregate deposits, there is also a problem related to the emission of greenhouse gases from cement production processes. It is estimated that the synthesis of alkaline-activated composites is twice as energy-intensive as the production of Portland cement and generates 4-8 times less carbon dioxide. Alkaline-activated concrete production can therefore lead to a significant reduction in environmental impact. The paper presents a thesis that there is a possibility of a monolithic combination of an alkaline activated mineral binder with an artificial ash-porbit aggregate, which will contribute to the improvement of the compression strength of light concrete based on alkaline activated energy waste materials and elimination of Portland cements.

The commodity crisis of the 1970s: scarcity, vulnerability and the West German metal supply

ABSTRACT The 1970s were a period marked by price hikes and fluctuations in the commodity markets, both of which had considerable economic and political repercussions. Although this refers to almost all kinds of raw materials, the case of oil dominates the memory. Metals, by contrast, have received little attention despite their crucial importance for both industrialized consumer states and ore-exporting developing countries. This article develops three main points. First, by highlighting the global metal markets from the late 1960s to the early 1980s it contextualizes the oil-price shock and points out the interactions between the markets for energy and other raw materials. Second, the article aims to draw attention to the sense of crisis in Western industrialized countries regarding their metal supply during this period. This is a topic which has been overshadowed by the case of oil, but which nevertheless deserves study, also because of the parallels to recent developments between 2004 and 2011. Third, the article analyses how notions of resource scarcity, vulnerability and crisis were constructed despite the fact that the commodity crisis proved to be a merely anticipated crisis with high and volatile prices, but no long-term disruptions of supply. Within this article West Germany serves as a case study for highly industrialized, import-dependent countries. The focus is on non-ferrous metals like copper, nickel and aluminium.

Pennisetum sinese: A Potential Phytoremediation Plant for Chromium Deletion from Soil

Chromium is one of the major pollutants in water and soil. Thus, it is urgent to develop a new method for chromium removal from the environment. Phytoremediation is a promising approach for heavy metal pollution recovery. As a perennial giant grass with a fast growth rate, Pennisetum sinese has been widely used as livestock feed, mushroom culture medium and biomass energy raw material. Interestingly, we have found a high adsorption capacity of P. sinese for chromium. P. sinese was treated with different concentrations of chromium for 15 days. Results showed that P. sinese plantlets grew well under low concentrations (less than 500 μM) of chromium (VI). The plantlet growth was inhibited when treated with high concentrations of chromium (more than 1000 μM). Up to 150.99 and 979.03 mg·kg−1 DW of chromium accumulated in the aerial part and root, respectively, under a treatment of 2000 μM Cr. The bioaccumulation factor (BCF) of P. sinese varied from 10.87 to 17.56, and reached a maximum value at the concentration of 500 μM. The results indicated that P. sinese showed strong tolerance and high accumulation capability under Cr stress. Therefore, the chromium removal potential of P. sinese has a great application prospect in phytoremediation.

The effect of water content and binder made from cassava starch and densification pressure on the quality of rice husk bio-pellets

Rice husk is a waste that has a very high amount every year and is spread in several islands in Indonesia. The use of rice husk as a source of energy raw materials is still very low. Rice husk itself in terms of potential amount and distribution has the potential to become a renewable energy source for rural areas so that it can overcome the problem of rural energy needs. By modifying rice husks into bio-pellets, rice husks can be a source of energy for the daily needs of rural communities and it is possible to support the industrial sector in rural areas so that the reach of rice husk waste can be increased and economic functions also increase. The bio-pellet quality reference standard made refers to the SNI standard. To make bio-pellets, flat die mill type machines are used with speeds of 1660 rpm. As an adhesive used cassava flour with a variation of 10% and 20% and a variation of water 15%; 20% by weight of rice husk. Compaction pressure varies by adjusting the gap between the roller and die with a distance of 0.5mm, 1mm and 1.5mm. From the results of testing the characteristics of bio-pellets that have been carried out, the best bio-pellet is obtained from bio-pellets which are processed from a mixture of rice husk with the addition of water by 20% with a roller and die gap of 1.5 mm and an adhesive of 20% where the calorific value is 4182 cal/gram. Of the five SNI standard parameters, for the ash standard, the product made cannot meet the maximum value of the ash standard, namely ash content ≤ 1.5%. For other standards such as having a calorific value of more than 4000 cal/gram, the bonded carbon value is ≥ 14%. Volatile content is less than ≤ 80% and has a density of ≥ 0.8 already fulfilled.

THE USE OF THE MISCANTHUS ‘RAW MATERIAL FOR THE PRODUCTION OF SOLID BIOFUEL

Today's most urgent question for Ukraine is the search for non-traditional renewable energy sources, among which energetic plants deserve special attention, which are the main carbon dioxide absorbent, form high yields of biomass, which could be used for energy purposes for biofuel production. Energy crops are plants that are specially cultivated for direct use as a fuel or for the production of biofuels . The by-products of vegetable origin (straw, sunflower husk, corn stalks, etc.), as well as specially designed plants - miskanthus, mitechgrus (gooseberry millet), willow, poplar may be the source of energy raw materials. The tendency of traditional fuels rising prices gives impetus to the use of solid fuel boilers on biomass not only in the private sector, but also in the municipal heat supply industry. When choosing the shape of solid biomass, it must be taken into account its value and availability in the region, as well as technical availability of solutions and equipment for its combustion. This paper presents the results of experimental studies of crushed miskanthus filtration drying dynamics. The main technical characteristics (bulk density, porosity, equivalent diameter) of crushed miskanthus are given. The dependence of the drying rate of crushed miskanthus on its humidity is shown and the dependence of filtration drying on the technological parameters of the heat agent and the height of the material layer is analyzed. It is shown that the rate of filtration drying in the period of full saturation of the thermal agent in the moisture vapor does not depend on the height of the crushed miskanthus layer.

Analysis of the methane-bearing capacity in Polish hard coal mines in the years 1993–2018

The process of underground coal production is inseparably connected with methane emissions. This gas has good energy characteristics and, at the same time, represents a huge threat to the safety of mining exploitation. Due to its flammability and explosiveness, the occurrence of methane-related incidents disturbs the entire production process and is extremely dangerous for the crew. Moreover, methane is a greenhouse gas that has a highly negative impact on the natural environment. These factors make it necessary to carry out works in order to limit its negative effects and increase its use as an energy raw material. The article presents the results of an analysis of the main parameters describing the methane-bearing capacity in Polish hard coal mines. The analysis was conducted within the scope of their absolute values and with reference to one tonne of coal extracted. The purpose of these studies was to identify the changes in the parameters under analysis over the last 25 years in the Polish mining industry and, at the same time, to determine how the structural changes in the mining industry and the entire economy influenced those parameters. This particularly concerns the emission of methane into the environment. The reason is that this value has a huge influence on the opinion about the mining industry. The results presented should be used for works on limiting the harmful effects of methane and increasing the degree of its utilisation in the economy.

Marketing of renewable energy sources

The article discusses the importance of marketing in the market of renewable energy sources. Alternative energy and its development significantly depend on the country and the climatic conditions of a particular area. In Russia, alternative energy, its development, lags behind world leaders. There are several reasons for this. The first reason is the large reserves of fuel and energy raw materials and their low cost. The second reason is the low utilization rate of the installed capacity of alternative energy. The third reason is that the weather conditions in Russia are nonhomogeneous and not very suitable for the development of alternative energy. A promising direction for the development of alternative energy is small alternative energy. Marketing is built on effective market segmentation, increasing end-user awareness and customer education efforts. The article also provides recommendations for improving the effectiveness of marketing, its special features, taking into account altruism, paternalism and moral satisfaction ofcustomers.

Thermographic analysis of failure for different rock types under uniaxial loading

Mining activities focus on the production of mineral resources for energy generation and raw material requirements worldwide and it is a known fact that shallow reserves become scarce. For this reason, exploration of new resources proceeds consistently to meet the increasing energy and raw material demand of industrial activities. Rock mechanics has a vital role in underground mining and surface mining. Devices and instruments used in laboratory testing to determine rock mechanics related parameters might have limited sensing capability of the failure behavior. However, methodologies such as, thermal cameras, digital speckle correlation method and acoustic emission might enable to investigate the initial crack formation in detail. Regarding this, in this study, thermographic analysis was performed to analyze the failure behaviors of different types of rock specimens during uniaxial compressive strength experiments. The energy dissipation profiles of different types of rocks were characterized by the temperature difference recorded with an infrared thermal camera during experiments. The temperature increase at the failure moment was detected as 4.45oC and 9.58oC for andesite and gneiss-schist specimens, respectively. Higher temperature increase was observed with respect to higher UCS value. Besides, a temperature decreases of about 0.5-0.6oC was recorded during the experiments of the marble specimens. The temperature change on the specimen is related to release of radiation energy. As a result of the porosity tests, it was observed that increase in the porosity rate from 5.65% to 20.97% can be associated to higher radiation energy released, from 12.68 kJ to 297.18 kJ.