Energy Plantations Research Articles

MICROALGAE AS SOURCE OF ENERGY: CURRENT SITUATION AND PERSPECTIVES OF USE

The article is devoted to alternative crude for bioenergy – microalgae as a source of biofuels (methane, biohydrogen, biodiesel and liquid hydrocarbons). There were considered the advantages of microalgae as biofuels-2 generation, its high productivity and energy content bring up these organisms to extensive research activities focus. The comparative analysis of oil plants productivity and microalgae was carried out. As demonstrated here, oil productivity of many microalgae greatly exceeds the oil productivity of the best producing oil crops, so replacement of the plants by microalgae will allow to reduce cropland aimed for energy plantations by a factor of 50–100, at that there will be possible to use land resources unsuitable for plant cultivation. There are considered microalgae – oil and liquid hydrocarbonsproducers, production methods and means of biomass converting.

Studies on Characteristics of Some Shrubaceous Non-woody Biomass Species and Their Electricity Generation Potentials

This article presents the results of chemical compositions, ash fusion temperatures, and energy values of various components of four different types of surplus non-woody biomass species (viz. Eupatorium, Anisomales, Sida, and Xanphium) and their impact on decentralized power generation structure. Among these biomass species, the components of Sida were found to have the highest carbon and hydrogen contents and energy values. In general, the results indicated lowest ash contents and highest energy values for their stumps, followed by branch, leaf, and bark, respectively. The fusion temperature results have been reported to be relatively higher (1,250–1,500°C) for Anisomales and Sida biomass ashes, indicating safe boiler operation up to about 1,100–1,200°C with these biomass materials. The calculation results have shown the requirements of approximately 67, 15, 39, and 64 hectares of land for energy plantations with Eupatorium, Anisomales, Sida, and Xanphium biomass species in order to ensure a perpetual supply of electricity for a group of 10–15 villages. Altogether, the authors recommend the exploitation of Anisomales and Sida biomass species for energy plantations in wastelands and their subsequent utilization in power generation, either individually or in co-firing with locally available high ash coals.

Managing soils for a warming earth in a food‐insecure and energy‐starved world

AbstractWorld energy consumption increased from 11.5 EJ in 1860 to 463 EJ in 2005, and is projected to be 691 EJ in 2030 and 850 EJ in 2050. The principal driver of such a drastic surge in energy demand is the increase in world population which was merely 1 billion in 1800, 1.6 billion in 1900, 6.0 billion in 2000, and is projected to be 7.5 billion in 2030 and 9.2 billion in 2050 before stabilizing at ≈10 billion by 2100. Heavy reliance on fossil‐fuel consumption has increased atmospheric CO2 abundance from 280 ppm in 1750 to 383 ppm in 2008 and is increasing at ≈2 ppm (4.2 Pg) per year along with the attendant threat of climate disruption. Similar to the close link between energy use and atmospheric chemistry, there also exists a close link between food insecurity and climate change through degradation of soils and desertification of the ecosystems. Global annual per capita cereal consumption increased from 267 kg in 1950, peaked at 339 kg in 1985, and decreased to 303 kg by 2000. In the quest for identifying alternate sources of energy, world production of bioethanol (mostly from corn grains in USA and sugarcane in Brazil) was 65 billion L, and that of biodiesel was 13 million Mg (t) (55% in EU countries) in 2008. Conversion of lignocellulosic biomass, using crop residues or establishing energy plantations, has severe constraints of the additional requirements for land area, water, and plant nutrients. Removal of crop residues for energy and other uses has severe adverse impacts on soil quality and agronomic productivity. Yet, globally average crop yields must be increased by 60% to 120% between 2000 and 2050 for meeting the needs of increase in population and change in dietary habits. Meeting demands of the growing world population and rising aspirations necessitate serious and objective considerations of change in food habits (to a more vegan diet), improvement in energy‐use efficiency, increase in crop yield per unit area and input, restoration of degraded soils and ecosystems, widespread adoption of recommended soil and crop practices, and identification of non‐C fuel sources.

Integrated renewable energy systems for off grid rural electrification of remote area

The off grid electrification by utilizing Integrated Renewable Energy System (IRES) is proposed to satisfy the electrical and cooking needs of the seven-uneletrified villages in the Almora district of Uttarakhand state, India. Four different scenarios are considered during modeling and optimization of IRES to ensure reliability parameters such as energy index ratio (EIR) and expected energy not supplied (EENS). The optimum system reliability, total system cost and cost of energy (COE) have also been worked out by introducing the customer interruption cost (CIC). The four different renewable energy scenarios have been compared for the considered study area using the LINGO software version 10. The fourth renewable energy scenario accounting 44.99% micro hydropower (MHP), 30.07% biomass, 5.19% biogas and 4.16% solar energy along with the additional resources of wind (1.27%) and energy plantation (12.33%) has been found to be the best among the different options considered. Furthermore, the optimal reliability for the fourth IRES system has been found to be 0.95 EIR at the optimized cost of Rs 19.44 lacs with estimated COE of Rs 3.36 per kWh. The COE obtained using LINGO software and HOMER software has also been compared and briefly discussed for all the four scenarios. In order to verify feasibility and cost of system for different biomass fuel prices, a sensitivity analysis has also been carried out and it has been found that the fourth scenario is more sustainable than the other considered options.

Thermogravimetric analysis and emission characteristics of two energy crops in air atmosphere: Arundo donax and Miscanthus giganthus

The aim of this work was to study the thermal behavior of two herbaceous crops ( Miscanthus giganthus, Arundo donax) obtained from energy plantations. Thermogravimetric analyses were performed at 5 °C min −1 under air atmosphere. The thermal degradation rates in devolatilization and combustion steps, the initial degradation temperature, and the residual weight were determined. The gas emissions and Particle Matter (PM) were also quantified. The thermal behavior of energy crops depends on the chemical composition. In fact, the initial degradation temperature for A. donax under air atmosphere was lower than for M. giganthus. However, the thermal degradation rate was higher for M. giganthus. Kinetic expressions for the degradation rate in devolatilization and combustion steps have been obtained for both energy crops. The comparison of the gas and PM emissions showed the same order of magnitude for both energy crops. In fact, 26.8 mmol/g of CO, CO 2, VOC and 1.8 × 10 13 particles/g were mainly emitted.

Fuel wood consumption pattern of tribal communities in cold desert of the Lahaul valley, North-Western Himalaya, India

Abstract Fuel wood is the primary source of energy in rural areas of the Himalaya. Lack of resources, extremely low temperature and xeric climatic conditions of the study region (Khoksar – 3200 m, Jahlma – 3000 m, Hinsa – 2700 m and Kuthar – 2600 m) of cold desert of the Lahaul valley has led to serious deforestation due to excessive use of fuel wood in the past. On the basis of family sizes, fuel wood consumption was recorded less in large family as compared to small family. The fuel wood is used for various activities such as cooking, water heating, room heating, lighting and livestock rearing, etc. Fuel wood consumption was highest in high altitude villages as compared to low altitude villages irrespective of family size. Fuel wood consumption of 4.32 ± 0.99 kg/capita/day was highest at Khoksar for small family during winter season followed by the autumn (2.25 ± 0.15 kg/capita/day) and summer (1.38 ± 0.13 kg/capita/day). The labour energy expenditure for fuel wood collection was also highest for Khoksar (91.91 MJ/capita/year), followed by Hinsa (61.29 MJ/capita/year), Kuthar (52.01 MJ/capita/year) and Jahlma (51.89 MJ/capita/year), respectively. It was found that fuel wood consumption in the study region was influenced by the local cold climate and season of the year. The present information on fuel wood consumption pattern at different altitudes would be helpful in designing appropriate technologies to develop energy plantations in the region.

Robinia pseudoacacia L.: A Lesser Known Tree Species for Biomass Production

Experiments with fast-growing tree species for biomass production in Germany have been mainly focused on the growth performance of Populus and Salix spp. Among the lesser-known species for energy plantations is Robinia pseudoacacia L. Special features of this species are its drought tolerance and its ability to fix nitrogen. Given the large share of marginal arable land in NE-Germany and the predicted climate change, R. pseudoacacia is expected to grow in importance. In order to evaluate the growth performance of this species under extreme conditions, four experiments were established in the post-mining landscape of the Lusatian lignite-mining district (NE-Germany). Biomass production was estimated for 3- to 14-year-old shoots on 4- to 14-year-old roots. Results for the annual production of oven-dried biomass of R. pseudoacacia ranged between 3 and 10 t ha−1, which was substantially greater than the biomass of poplar and willow clones established on the same site. Economic analysis results show that the rotation period, the duration of the plantation, and the harvesting costs are important parameters for the economic return and cash flow in short-rotation coppice cultivation. The results show that the cultivation of R. pseudoacacia is an economically competitive land-use strategy for the post-mining landscapes considered in our study.

The role of black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia L.) in establishment of short-rotation energy plantations in Hungary

Establishment of short-rotation energy plantations for fuel production has been of international interest for many years. Energy plantation experiments in Hungary have been conducted for a longer time. In the country black locust ( Robinia ps eudoacacia L.) is one of the most important stand-forming tree species, covering approximately 23% of the forested land (410 000 ha) and providing about 19% of the annual timber output of the country. This fast growing species seems to be suitable for energy plantations as well. So, in Helvecia (Central­ Hungary, sand-soil region) two energy plantation s were established u sing common black locust and its cultivars improved in Hungary. The spacing variations of the common black locust were: l.5x0.3 m, I .5x0.5 m and l.5x 1.0 m. At the age of 5 the closest spacing ( 1.5x0.3m) produced the greatest annual increment in oven-dry weight (6.5 t ha·1 yr- 1). In the trial with black locust cultivars planted in spacing of 1.5xl.0m, at the age of 7 the highest annual increment in oven-dry mass was produced by the cultivar ' Ulloi' (9.7 t ha-1 yr- 1) followed by the common black locust (8.4 t ha-1 yr- 1) and the cultivar 'J tiszkiseri (1.6 t ha·1 yr- 1). The trials have verified that in temperate climate the increment in oven­ dry dendromass of black locust energy plantation s has ranged from 6 to 12 t ha·1 yr·1. On the basis of the trials' evaluation the quantity of dendromass mostly depends on site quality, species and cultivars, as well as on the initial spacing (plants per hectare).

Statistical evaluation of the early-stage development of Jatropha energy plantations in Northeastern Mexico

A systematic evaluation of agricultural factors affecting the adaptation of the tropical oil plant Jatropha curcas L. to the semi-arid subtropical climate in Northeastern Mexico has been conducted. The factors studied include plant density and topology, as well as fungi and virus abundances. A multiple regression analysis shows that total fruit production can be well predicted by the area per plant and the total presence of fungi. Four common herbicides and a mechanical weed control measure were established at a dedicated test array and their impact on plant productivity was assessed.

Land availability analysis and social attitude aspects in relation to implementation and development of short' rotation forestry systems in Poland

Land availability analysis and social attitude aspects in relation to implementation and development of short' rotation forestry systems in Poland After observations of European development of renewable sources, and according to protocols and directives, set by both European and Polish policy makers, there is a need to find methods to support the future development of Short Rotation Forestry (SRF) using fast-growing trees on agricultural land, and to overcome potential problems. In this paper society attitudes towards future developing options for SRF energy plantations in Poland were investigated. In the investigation, two kinds of questionnaires were presented to various representatives of branches that have a potential interest in the subject. Individual representatives for the groups of industrial and municipal representatives, farmers, researchers and academic teachers, etc. were pooled. The results showed that main difficulties may arise from farmer attitudes towards nontraditional crops. This group of people showed great suspiciousness towards new crops, an attitude, which might be explained in part by the fact that the average level of knowledge concerning SRF energy plantations was low. Another factor that may strongly influence the introduction of SRF plantation is the land availability and suitability. Concerning the relatively large arable lands in Poland in comparison to other European countries the land availability potential has been investigated. On the base of two factors projecting the mentioned aspects of land, the analysis has been performed to figure out regions in Poland with the highest short rotation forestry potential.

Energy production from grassland – Assessing the sustainability of different process chains under German conditions

In many regions of Europe, grassland shapes the landscape and fulfils important functions in protecting nature, soil, and water. However, the traditional uses of grassland for forage production are vanishing with progress in breeding and structural adaptations in agriculture. On the other hand, the demand for biomass energy is rising due to political sustainability goals and financial measures to support renewable energy. Against this background, the Institute for Technology Assessment and Systems Analysis investigated the applicability, economic efficiency, and sustainability of different techniques for energy production from grassland as well as from grassland converted into maize fields or short-rotation poplars under German conditions. The results show that despite relatively high energy prices and the financial support for bioenergy, the effects of energy production from grassland on employment in agriculture and farmers' income are modest. What is beneficial are savings in non-renewable energy, reductions in greenhouse gas emissions, and local provision of energy carriers. If grassland biomass (grass silage or hay) is used for energy purposes, this brings the further advantages of preserving biodiversity and the cultural landscape and protecting of soil and groundwater. Negative impacts on sustainable development result from an increase in emissions, which leads to acidification, eutrophication, and risks to human health. The overall evaluation indicates that short-rotation poplars are comparatively advantageous from the economic and ecological point of view. Therefore, a development plan for grassland is required to identify areas where grassland could be used as an energy resource or where it would be favourable to install energy plantations with fast-growing perennial plants.

Economic feasibility of electricity production from energy plantations present on community-managed forestlands in Madhya Pradesh, India

This paper assesses economic feasibility of utilizing community-managed degraded forest areas for raising energy crops and using the produced biomass for electricity production in the state of Madhya Pradesh, India through gasification technology. Three fast-growing species, three gasifiers of different capacities, three capital costs, and two scenarios of carbon payments were considered for analysis. Sensitivity and risk analyses were undertaken for determining the effects of variations in inputs on selected outputs. Results suggest that 5 million megawatt hour electricity can be generated annually which will prevent 4 million tons of carbon dioxide emissions per year. The production cost of a unit of electricity was found inversely related to the scale of production. The average cost of electricity at the consumer level produced using 100 kW gasifier was $0.15/kWh, which was greater than the price of electricity supplied from grid i.e. $0.08/kWh. The unit cost of producing electricity using Acacia nilotica was lowest among all the selected species. Technological advancements suitable government incentives are needed to promote electricity generation from forest biomass through gasification technology. This will help in spurring economic development and reducing overall ecological footprint of the state.

Tools of promoting „energy-crops”

The utilisation of renewable energy sources have come to front with the decreasing fossil fuel stocks, the unsolved problems and fears of nuclear energy and so the cumulating energy dependence. In Hungary the potential of biomass is the largest in renewable energy sources.During our examinations, we analysed the promotion of producing energy crops in Szabolcs-Szatmár-Bereg county. With the examination of the territories involved in energy crop subsidies it can be stated that the energy crop subsidy had its promoting role only on those areas where because of the bad soil conditions the energy crop producing is more profitable than other alternative (non energy) crops.The expected growth rate of energy plantations will be low, according to the low rate of subsidy intensity (40-60%). The uncertainty of direct area payments decreases the calculability that cuts back the favour of investment in short rotation forestry planting.

Soils and food sufficiency. A review

Soil degradation, caused by land misuse and soil mismanagement, has plagued humanity since the dawn of settled agriculture. Many once thriving civilizations collapsed due to erosion, salinization, nutrient depletion and other soil degradation processes. The Green Revolution of the 1960s and 1970s, that saved hundreds of millions from starvation in Asia and elsewhere, by-passed Sub-Saharan Africa. This remains the only region in the world where the number of hungry and food-insecure populations will still be on the increase even by 2020. The serious technological and political challenges are being exacerbated by the rising energy costs. Resource-poor and small-size land-holders can neither afford the expensive input nor are they sure of their effectiveness because of degraded soils and the harsh, changing climate. Consequently, crop yields are adversely impacted by accelerated erosion, and depletion of soil organic matter (SOM) and nutrients because of the extractive farming practices. Low crop yields, despite growing improved varieties, are due to the severe soil degradation, especially the low SOM reserves and poor soil structure that aggravate drought stress. Components of recommended technology include: no-till; residue mulch and cover crops; integrated nutrient management; and biochar used in conjunction with improved crops (genetically modified, biotechnology) and cropping systems, and energy plantation for biofuel production. However, its low acceptance, e.g. for no-till farming, is due to a range of biophysical, social and economic factors. Competing uses of crop residues for other needs is among numerous factors limiting the adoption of no-till farming. Creating another income stream for resource-poor farmers, through payments for ecosystem services, e.g., C sequestration in terrestrial ecosystems, is an important strategy for promoting the adoption of recommended technologies. Adoption of improved soil management practices is essential to adapt to the changing climate, and meeting the needs of growing populations for food, fodder, fuel and fabrics. Soil restoration and sustainable management are essential to achieving food security, and global peace and stability.

Pyrolysis of Biomass from Sustainable Energy Plantations: Effect of Mineral Matter Reduction on Kinetics and Charcoal Pore Structure

The effect of reducing mineral matter naturally present in sawdust from untreated poplar (Populus deltoide) wood and giant reed (Arundo donax) canes on pyrolysis kinetics was examined from comparative non-isothermal thermogravimetric measurements in the range 20–900°C, using raw and previously demineralized samples. Estimated kinetic parameters reflected changes caused by demineralization, especially in the low temperature range (up to ≈450°C), likely due to catalytic effects of the minerals. Pyrolysis of the demineralized biomasses also induced an enhanced development in pore structure of the resulting charcoal, favoring its potential use in adsorption applications and/or as an improved intermediate product for further conversion into activated carbons.

Energy Values and Estimation of Power Generation Potentials of Some Non-woody Biomass Species

In view of high energy potentials in non-woody biomass species and an increasing interest in their utilization for power generation, an attempt has been made in this study to assess the proximate analysis and energy content of different components of Ocimum canum and Tridax procumbens biomass species (both non-woody), and their impact on power generation and land requirement for energy plantations. The net energy content in Ocimum canum was found to be slightly higher than that in Tridax procumbens. In spite of having higher ash contents, the barks from both the plant species exhibited higher calorific values. The results have shown that approximately 650 and 1,270 hectares of land are required to generate 20,000 kWh/day electricity from Ocimum canum and Tridax procumbens biomass species. Coal samples, obtained from six different local mines, were also examined for their qualities, and the results were compared with those of studied biomass materials. This comparison reveals much higher power output with negligible emission of suspended particulate matters (SPM) from biomass materials.

Soil Science and the Carbon Civilization

Soil science must play a crucial role in meeting present and emerging societal needs of the 21st century and beyond for a population expected to stabilize around 10 billion and having increased aspirations for a healthy diet and a rise in the standards of living. In addition to advancing food security by eliminating hunger and malnutrition, soil resources must be managed regarding numerous other global needs through interdisciplinary collaborations. Some of which are to mitigate global warming; to improve quantity and quality of freshwater resources; to enhance biodiversity; to minimize desertification; serve as a repository of waste; an archive of human and planetary history; meet growing energy demands; develop strategies of sustainable management of urban ecosystems; alleviate poverty of agricultural communities as an engine of economic development; and fulfill aspirations of rapidly urbanizing and industrializing societies. In addition to food and ecosystem services, bio‐industries (e.g., plastics, solvents, paints, adhesives, pharmaceuticals and chemicals) through plant‐based compounds (carbohydrates, proteins, and oils) and energy plantations (bioethanol and biodiesel) can revolutionize agriculture. These diverse and complex demands on soil resources necessitate a shift in strategic thinking and conceptualizing sustainable management of soil resources in agroecosystems to provide all ecosystem services while also meeting the needs for food, feed, fiber, and fuel by developing multifunctional production systems. There is a strong need to broaden the scope of soil science to effectively address ever changing societal needs. To do this, soil scientists must rally with allied sciences including hydrology, climatology, geology, ecology, biology, physical sciences (chemistry, physics), and engineering. Use of nanotechnology, biotechnology, and information technology can play an important role in addressing emerging global issues. Pursuit of sustainability, being a moral/ethical and political challenge, must be addressed in cooperation with economists and political scientists. Soil scientists must work in cooperation with industrial ecologists and urban planners toward sustainable development and management of soils in urban and industrial ecosystems. More than half of the world's population (3.3 billion) live in towns and cities, and the number of urban dwellers is expected to increase to 5 billion by 2030. Thus, the study of urban soils for industrial use, human habitation, recreation, infrastructure forestry, and urban agriculture is a high priority. Soil scientists must nurture symbiotic/synergistic relations with numerous stake holders including land managers, energy companies and carbon traders, urban planners, waste disposal organizations, and conservators of natural resources. Trading of C credits in a trillion‐dollar market by 2020 must be made accessible to land managers, especially the resource‐poor farmers in developing countries. Soil science curricula, at undergraduate and graduate levels, must be revisited to provide the needed background in all basic and applied sciences with focus on globalization. We must raise the profile of soil science profession and position students in the competitive world of ever flattening Earth.

Thermogravimetry/mass spectrometry study of woody residues and an herbaceous biomass crop using PCA techniques

The devolatilization behaviour of pine and beech wood from carpentry residuals and an herbaceous product from an energy plantation (artichoke thistle) was investigated by thermogravimetry/mass spectrometry (TG/MS). The effect of three pre-treatments, hot-water washing, ethanol extraction and their combination, was also studied. Principal component analysis (PCA) was employed to help in the evaluation of the large data set of results. The characteristics of the thermal decomposition of the herbaceous crop are considerably different from that of the woody biomass samples. The evolution profiles of some characteristic pyrolysis products revealed that the thermal behaviour of wood and thistle is still considerably different after the elimination of some of the inorganic ions and extractive compounds, although the macromolecular components of the samples decompose at similar temperatures. With the help of the PCA calculations, the effect of the different pre-treatments on the production of the main pyrolysis products was evidenced.

Thermogravimetry/mass spectrometry analysis of energy crops

The aim of this work was to study the thermal decomposition of different plant species obtained from energy plantations. Thermogravimetry/mass spectrometry (TG/MS) experiments have been performed with two herbaceous crops (Miscanthus sinensis, pelletized energy grass) and two wood samples (willow, water locust) in inert and oxidative atmospheres. Owing to the large number of data obtained in the experiments, a chemometric tool, principal component analysis (PCA) has been used to help the interpretation of the results. It has been found that the thermal decomposition of the studied wood species is similar, whereas that of the studied herbaceous samples exhibits significant differences. PCA has been found to be useful for finding correlations between the various experimental data.

Establishment of short rotation energy plantations as an alternative possibility in less favoured areas

Based on the examinations we see a possibility of introducing alternative landuse systems. A certain part of the mostly grain growing lands with weak productivity could be used for short rotation energy plantations. The conditions for the introduction of these plantations are given in the area. The biomass plantations established for wood chips production purposes provide an economic alternative for the farmers of less favoured agricultural areas. However environmental impacts are to be studied and sustainable structures to be established forsuccessful long term operations.