Altitudinal Zones Research Articles

Elevation patterns of tree diversity, composition and stand structure in Mahendragiri Hill Forest, Eastern Ghats of Odisha, India

Tropical mountain forests in Eastern Ghats provide a unique opportunity to relate environmental drivers to plant community structure along elevation gradient. We aimed to investigate the tree diversity, composition and stand structure along elevation gradient and drivers facilitating species distribution across Mahendragiri Hill Forest (MHF) in Eastern Ghats of Odisha, India. Altogether 120 plots of 0.05 ha were established and stems ≥10 cm diameter at breast height were measured. We compared species composition and stand structure among elevation zones. Ordination analysis was used to quantify how community structure was related to topographic, climatic and onsite conditions. In total 189 species representing 131 genera and 51 families were recorded ranging from 64 (MHF6) to 106 species (MHF4). Fabaceae representing 23 species, followed by Phyllanthaceae was dominant families. Maximum tree density and basal area were enumerated in high elevation MHF6 and least disturbed MHF5, respectively. Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA) interpreted 58.59% of variation and depicted the role of elevation followed by disturbance and precipitation in species distribution patterns. Variance partitioning analysis shows that topography and disturbance strongly partitioned the dissemination of tree species. Variations in species diversity reflects a direct coupling or interaction of several factors together, making it a complex phenomenon.

Paleoecology of the mammoth fauna of Southern Siberia during the last glacial period based on stable isotope data

Composition of stable carbon (δ13C) and nitrogen (δ15N) isotopes of bone collagen of large mammals who inhabited Southern Siberia during MIS2 have been analysed. The results suggest significant isotopic differences of those animals from the fauna of other regions. Notably, the differences between animals from neighbouring regions may be more significant than between those from more distant areas. A summary description of the isotopic signatures of the LGP mammoth fauna from the Minusinsk depression has been presented, showing a general pattern of lower δ15N and higher δ13C values as compared to species from other regions. Variations in δ15N values may be explained by strong influence of landscape and climatic factors, in particular, the highly mosaic nature of local landscapes due to its ruggedness and altitudinal zonation. One of the possible mechanisms that could explain the observed δ13C signatures in bone collagen of the mammals is regional geochemistry, namely, the presence of developed system of mineral lakes and saline soils in the area. On saline soils, halophytic plants using the C4 type of photosynthesis and characterized by higher δ13C values, are more common. Furthermore, some halophytes, being C3 plants, are able to adapt to salinity stress and fix carbon in a way similar to C4 plants.

Soil microbial community, dissolved organic matter and nutrient cycling interactions change along an elevation gradient in subtropical China

To identify possible dominating processes involved in soil microbial community assembly, dissolved organic matter (DOM) and multi-nutrient cycling (MNC) interactions and contribute to understanding of climate change effects on these important cycles, we investigated the interaction of soil chemistry, DOM components and microbial communities in five vegetation zones - ranging from evergreen broad-leaved forest to alpine meadow - along an elevation gradient of 290–1960 m in the Wuyi Mountains, Fujian Province, China. Soil DOM composition and microbial community assembly were characterized using Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry (FT-ICR MS) and Illumina MiSeq high-throughput sequencing, respectively. Sloan's neutral model and the modified stochasticity ratio were used to infer community assembly processes. Key microbial drivers of the soil MNC index were identified from partial least squares path models. Our results showed that soil DOM composition is closely related to the vegetation types along an elevation gradient, the structure and composition of the microbial community, and soil nutrient status. Overall, values of the double bond equivalent (DBE), modified aromaticity index (AImod) increased, and H/C ratio and molecular lability boundary (MLBL) percentage decreased with elevation. Lignins/CRAM-like structures compounds dominated soil DOM in each vegetation type and its relative abundance decreased with elevation. Aliphatic/protein and lipids components also decreased, but the relative abundance of aromatic structures and tannin increased with elevation. The alpha diversity index of soil bacteria gradually decreased with elevation, with deterministic processes dominating the microbial community assembly in the highest elevation zone. Bacterial communities were conducive to the decomposition of labile degradable DOM compounds (H/C ≥ 1.5) at low elevation. In the cooler and wetter conditions at higher-elevation sites the relative abundance of potentially resistant soil DOM components (H/C < 1.5) gradually increased. Microbial community diversity and composition were important predictors of potential soil nutrient cycling. Although higher elevation sites have higher nutrient cycling potential, soil DOM was assessed to be a more stable carbon store, with apparent lower lability and bioavailability than at lower elevation sites. Overall, this study increases understanding of the potential linkage between soil microbial community, multiple nutrient cycling and DOM fate in subtropical mountain ecosystems that can help predict the effect of climate change on soil carbon sequestration and thus inform ecosystem management.

Leaf trait Adaptation in Grewia optiva Drummond along Altitudinal Gradient in the North Western Himalayas

The current study was carried out between year 2020-2023 in the Department of Tree Improvement and Genetic Resources, College of Forestry, Dr. Y. S. Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry, Nauni, Solan (H.P.). This study was carried out in four altitudinal ranges of Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand (400 to 800 m (A1), 801-1200 m (A2), 1201-1600 m (A3), and 1601-2000 m (A4) above mean sea level (a m s l). Leaf morphometric traits such as leaf area, leaf length, leaf width and petiole length increased from the A1 (400-800 m) altitudinal zone to the A2 (800-1200 m). These apparent characteristics, however, declined more as the altitudinal range increased from A2 to A4. Maximum values were reported for A2 (800-1200 m altitudinal range) in relation to average leaf area, length, width, and petiole length. The reason being the as elevation increased, leaves became thicker and water content reduced and leaves size became smaller. Plants can develop adaptive strategies in response to environmental change produced by an elevational gradient as elevation increases, the temperature always drops, limiting leaf area expansion due to heat and energy availability. However, according to our findings, the leaf area steadily increase up to 800-1200 m a m s l (A2 altitudinal zone). This counterintuitive pattern could be explained by the impact of precipitation and temperature fluctuations on LA.

Insights into Rainfall Extremities Across the Agroclimatic Zones of Tamil Nadu, India

Rainfall is a crucial agrometeorological parameter that impacts hydrology and agricultural planning in a region. The spatiotemporal changes in the occurrences of precipitation extremes must be monitored to reduce the hazards caused by the fluctuating rainfall pattern. The extreme rainfall indices for each year categorized under excess, normal and deficit rainfall categories were calculated over the agroclimatic zones of Tamil Nadu using the high-resolution CHIRPS datasets from 1991 to 2022. The results highlighted that High Rainfall Zone has more consecutive wet days (22 days), minimum consecutive dry days (25 days) and Daily Intensity Index with threshold of 2.5 mm (28.6 mm) compared to other zones. The maximum consecutive dry days of 99 days, a high rainy day of 142 days, and minimum daily intensity of 8.9 mm are experienced by the Cauvery Delta Zone, High Altitude and Hilly Zone, and Western Zone, respectively. Overall, the High Rainfall Zone faces a higher number of extreme rainfall events in terms of wet days and intensity, whereas the average maximum consecutive dry days and minimum rainfall intensity is observed over the north eastern zone and north western zone, respectively indicating high dry periods.

Yield Attributes and Yield of Wheat Affected by Irrigation Schedules and Varieties under HAT Zone Conditions of Andhra Pradesh, India

Aims: A field experiment was conducted to assess the impact of various irrigation schedules and wheat varieties on yield characteristics and yield of wheat in Andhra Pradesh's high altitude and tribal area (HAT) zone.&#x0D; Study Design: Split-plot design was used to conduct the research experiment.&#x0D; Place and Duration of Study: Regional Agricultural Research Station, Chintapalle, Visakhapatnam, ANGRAU, Andhra Pradesh. The study was conducted during Rabi season 2021-22.&#x0D; Methodology: Split-plot design was used to conduct the experiment in which as main plots, there were three irrigation schedules—irrigation at CRI, maximum tillering, jointing, flowering, and milking stages (M1); irrigation at CRI, flowering, and milking stages (M2); and irrigation at CRI and milking stages (M3)—and four varieties—DBW-252(V1), HI-1544(V2), HI-8759(V3), and HI-8713(V4)—as subplots. The parameters of Spike length, Spike weight, number of productive tillers m-2, number of grains spike-1, number of filled grains spike-1, 1000 grain weight, grain yield, straw yield, biological yield, and harvest index were found to be superior with five irrigations scheduled at CRI, maximum tillering, jointing, flowering, and milking stages. Among the varieties, HI-8759 recorded the highest values, which were comparable to HI-8713.&#x0D; Results: Spike length, spike weight, no. of productive tillers m-2, no. of grains spike-1, no. of filled grains spike-1, 1000 grain weight found superior with five irrigations schedules. The highest values among the variations were achieved by HI-8759 and were comparable to HI-8713.The five irrigation schedule resulted in higher grain and straw yields. Despite the fact that there was a reduced grain yield with two irrigations, the straw yield was statistically equal with three irrigations. With five irrigations, the harvest index (%) was much higher, while with two irrigations, it was significantly lower. However, HI-8759 had a much greater grain and straw production than the other cultivars. The straw yield remained at HI-8713 levels. The HI-8759's harvest index outperformed all other kinds by a wide margin. With HI-1544, the lowest grain and straw yields were noted.&#x0D; Conclusion: Wheat yield was dramatically increased by five different irrigation regimens applied at various phenological phases. The maximum yield was recorded by variety HI-8759, which was comparable to variety HI-8713 in terms of biological and straw yields.

An elevational shift facilitated the Mesoamerican diversification of Azure-hooded Jays (Cyanolyca cucullata) during the Great American Biotic Interchange.

The Great American Biotic Interchange (GABI) was a key biogeographic event in the history of the Americas. The rising of the Panamanian land bridge ended the isolation of South America and ushered in a period of dispersal, mass extinction, and new community assemblages, which sparked competition, adaptation, and speciation. Diversification across many bird groups, and the elevational zonation of others, ties back to events triggered by the GABI. But the exact timing of these events is still being revealed, with recent studies suggesting a much earlier time window for faunal exchange, perhaps as early as 20 million years ago (Mya). Using a time-calibrated phylogenetic tree, we show that the jay genus Cyanolyca is emblematic of bird dispersal trends, with an early, pre-land bridge dispersal from Mesoamerica to South America 6.3-7.3 Mya, followed by a back-colonization of C. cucullata to Mesoamerica 2.3-4.8 Mya, likely after the land bridge was complete. As Cyanolyca species came into contact in Mesoamerica, they avoided competition due to a prior shift to lower elevation in the ancestor of C. cucullata. This shift allowed C. cucullata to integrate itself into the Mesoamerican highland avifauna, which our time-calibrated phylogeny suggests was already populated by higher-elevation, congeneric dwarf-jays (C. argentigula, C. pumilo, C. mirabilis, and C. nanus). The outcome of these events and fortuitous elevational zonation was that C. cucullata could continue colonizing new highland areas farther north during the Pleistocene. Resultingly, four C. cucullata lineages became isolated in allopatric, highland regions from Panama to Mexico, diverging in genetics, morphology, plumage, and vocalizations. At least two of these lineages are best described as species (C. mitrata and C. cucullata). Continued study will further document the influence of the GABI and help clarify how dispersal and vicariance shaped modern-day species assemblages in the Americas.

Genomic analysis of Plasmodium falciparum isolates across different altitudinal zones along the slope of Mount Cameroon

BackgroundMalaria elimination is threatened by the emergence and rapid spread of drug resistance. Understanding the demographic history of Plasmodium falciparum and the genetic basis of adaptation to antimalarial treatment and host immunity is critical to elimination efforts. This study sought to characterize the diversity of P. falciparum isolates across different altitudes along the slope of Mount Cameroon.MethodologyUsing the Illumina next-generation sequencing platform P. falciparum isolates from low, intermediate and high altitudes along the slope of Mount Cameroon were studied to determine their genetic diversity, population structures, and signatures of selection in known drug resistance alleles.ResultsA total of 77,253 single-nucleotide polymorphisms were identified from 220 quality P. falciparum clinical isolates from high (24,214), intermediate (24,426), and low (28,613) altitude. About 49%, 48.2% and 30% of the parasite isolates from high, intermediate, and low altitudes, respectively had FWS values &amp;gt; 0.95 indicative of dominant mixed genotype infections and low population sub-structure with high potential for out-crossing. No significant difference was observed in within-host diversity while population structure analysis did not separate the isolates in the three major altitudinal groups by PCA, FST and admixtures, suggesting bidirectional gene flow among the populations. A total of 94 antigenic genes under balancing selection were detected in the area including vaccine candidate gene ama1, eba175, msp1, trap, dblmsp, and clag2. Moreover, 17 of these genes were identified to be under both recent positive directional and positive balancing selection including the prominent host immune target genes surfin 8.2, trap, and ama1. Recent directional selection analysis using integrated standardized haplotype score (iHS) did not detect any selection signatures in the Pfdhfr, Pfdhps, Pfmdr1, and PfK13 genes. Furthermore, no PfKelch13 validated mutation associated with artemisinin resistance was identified in this study and no structural divergence was noticed among the P. falciparum parasite populations across different altitudes around the Mount Cameroon region.DiscussionFindings revealed high genetic diversity and low population structure suggesting that malaria transmission remain high in the study area and parasite populations circulating around the slope of Mount Cameroon are homogenous.

Does small mammal species richness have a bimodal elevation gradient in Sikkim Himalaya?

The most reported elevation gradients in species richness are a unimodal peak and linear decline. However, the overlap of different biogeographic realms in a region can influence such gradients. We used live-capture data on small mammals (voles, rats, mice, shrews, and pikas) to describe elevation gradients in species richness in Sikkim, where Afrotropical, Indo-Malayan, and Palearctic fauna occur in the lower, middle, and higher elevations, respectively. We sampled 38 trap lines in an elevation range of 300 m to 4,200 m, which we binned into nine elevation zones. Each trap line had 50 Sherman traps run for 3–5 nights during 2003–05 and 2012–13. We had a total of 9,069 trap nights with 430 captures, including 13 species of murid rodents, five ground shrews, two voles, and one each of pika and tree shrews. The capture rate in a trap line ranged from 0 to 19.7 per 100 trap night (mean = 5.30±0.767 SEM) with a peak at 2,501–3,001 m (3.29±0.644), coinciding with temperate broad leaf and conifer forests. Species richness seemed to have a minor peak at 501–1,000 m (2.50±0.645 species per trapline) and a clear peak at 3,001–3,500 m (3.29±0.644), coinciding with tropical forests and temperate mixed conifer forests, respectively. The apparent bimodal elevation gradient is due to the overlap of western Asian and Indo-Malayan fauna in the lower elevation and of the latter and Palearctic fauna in the higher elevation. More intensive sampling is needed to test this hypothesis that the overlap of biogeographic regions can influence elevation gradient in species richness.

Essence of culture and nature: Governance as the emerging correlates of quality‐of‐life experiences in the communities of Himachal, India

AbstractThe aim of this work is to uncover factors influencing the quality of life in the study area. The idea is operationalized by collecting data at the household level on subjective and objective aspects of quality of life. For this study, data were collected from 18 sample villages using a stratified random sampling method. The villages were chosen to represent two distinct communities, namely the scheduled castes (SC) and the general population, spread across three altitudinal zones. In all, 436 households (about 20% of the total) were surveyed with respect to 10 domains of quality of life, namely environment and cleanliness, housing, education, health, personal well‐being, democratic and social participation, information and communication, employment, income and wealth and governance. To identify the key domains of quality of life, the principal components analysis (PCA) technique was applied. The findings support the idea that Asian predictors of satisfaction with life are similar to those of the Western world, but social and cultural backgrounds determine some culture‐oriented predictors. The PCA results show that governance is the key determinant of life satisfaction. This study reveals that due to higher levels of educational attainment, good income conditions, and greater participation in community affairs, the general community has reported higher quality of life satisfaction compared to the SC community population.

Microbial diversity in Antarctic Dry Valley soils across an altitudinal gradient.

The Antarctic McMurdo Dry Valleys are geologically diverse, encompassing a wide variety of soil habitats. These environments are largely dominated by microorganisms, which drive the ecosystem services of the region. While altitude is a well-established driver of eukaryotic biodiversity in these Antarctic ice-free areas (and many non-Antarctic environments), little is known of the relationship between altitude and microbial community structure and functionality in continental Antarctica. We analysed prokaryotic and lower eukaryotic diversity from soil samples across a 684 m altitudinal transect in the lower Taylor Valley, Antarctica and performed a phylogenic characterization of soil microbial communities using short-read sequencing of the 16S rRNA and ITS marker gene amplicons. Phylogenetic analysis showed clear altitudinal trends in soil microbial composition and structure. Cyanobacteria were more prevalent in higher altitude samples, while the highly stress resistant Chloroflexota and Deinococcota were more prevalent in lower altitude samples. We also detected a shift from Basidiomycota to Chytridiomycota with increasing altitude. Several genera associated with trace gas chemotrophy, including Rubrobacter and Ornithinicoccus, were widely distributed across the entire transect, suggesting that trace-gas chemotrophy may be an important trophic strategy for microbial survival in oligotrophic environments. The ratio of trace-gas chemotrophs to photoautotrophs was significantly higher in lower altitude samples. Co-occurrence network analysis of prokaryotic communities showed some significant differences in connectivity within the communities from different altitudinal zones, with cyanobacterial and trace-gas chemotrophy-associated taxa being identified as potential keystone taxa for soil communities at higher altitudes. By contrast, the prokaryotic network at low altitudes was dominated by heterotrophic keystone taxa, thus suggesting a clear trophic distinction between soil prokaryotic communities at different altitudes. Based on these results, we conclude that altitude is an important driver of microbial ecology in Antarctic ice-free soil habitats.

The Spatio-Temporal Changes of Small Lakes of the Qilian Mountains from 1987 to 2020 and Their Driving Mechanisms

Small lakes (areas ranging from 0.01 km2 to 1 km2) are highly sensitive to climate change and human activities. However, few studies have investigated the long-term intra-annual trends in the number and area of small lakes and their driving mechanisms in the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau (QTP). As a significant water tower in northwest China, the Qilian Mountains region (QMR) in the QTP is essential for sustaining regional industrial and agricultural production, biodiversity, and human well-being. We conducted an analysis of the dynamics of small lakes in the QMR region. In this study, we employed Geodetector and examined nine factors to investigate the driving mechanisms behind the long-term variations in the small lake water bodies (SLWBs). We specifically focused on understanding the effects of single-factor and two-factor interactions. The results indicate that the number and area of small lakes had a fluctuating trend from 1987 to 2020. Initially, there was a decrease followed by an increase, which was generally consistent with trends in the large lakes on the QTP. All basins had far more expanding than shrinking lakes. The area of seasonal SLWBs in each basin was increasing more rapidly than permanent SLWBs. The distribution and trends in the area and number of small lakes varied widely across elevation zones. Runoff, snow depth, and temperature contributed the most to SLWB changes. Human activities and wind speed contributed the least. However, the main drivers varied across basins. The impact of two-factor interactions on SLWB changes in basins was greater than that of single factors. Our results provide useful information for planning and managing water resources and studies of small lakes.

Parallel Evolution of Skull Form in Three Rodent Genera Inhabiting Steep Elevational Gradients of Ethiopian Highlands

Several rodent genera radiated in Ethiopian highlands during Pleistocene, giving rise to species specialized to different elevation zones. The zonation is accompanied by vegetation change from savannahs or forests in lower elevations, through the mid-elevation belt of ericaceous shrublands to Afroalpine moorlands on the mountain tops. Such evolution on elevation gradient is expected to promote phenotypic adaptations and several genera are known to include highly distinctive high-elevation specialists. In this study, we systematically examined shape and size differentiation of skull and mandible in three genera, Lophuromys, Arvicanthis and Stenocephalemys, each including from six to eight species inhabiting different elevation zones on both sides of the Great Rift Valley. Employing computed tomography, three-dimensional virtual models, landmark-based geometric morphometrics and a powerful toolkit of partial least squares analysis, we demonstrated the elevation-related differentiation is a prominent feature of skull and mandible shape variation in all three genera. We identified the parts of skull and mandible which change most between the successive zones. These include, notably, orbits and insertion areas of masticatory muscles, which suggests adaptive shifts in visual perception and diet. We also showed that while the same parts are modified in all three genera, they are modified in different ways and to a different degree. The evidence for size differentiation was mixed despite the universal trend of larger size in higher elevations. Our study confirms the high-elevation specialists represent the most distinctive forms, which is especially true for the species from Bale and Arsi Mountains, East of the Great Rift Valley.

Effects of vegetation and topography on snowshoe hare relative abundance at the southern range periphery

AbstractThe conservation of snowshoe hares (Lepus americanus) and their habitat is a major focus in the American West, largely because of their importance to the federally threatened Canada lynx (Lynx canadensis). Understanding the habitat relationships of snowshoe hare populations at the southern periphery of their distribution is particularly important because a warming climate is reducing the mesic forests and persistent snow cover they require. Using fecal pellet density as an index, we examined the factors influencing snowshoe hare relative abundance at 2 study areas in the Southern Rocky Mountains by comparing suites of candidate models containing fine‐scale vegetation and topographical covariates. The Birdseye Gulch study area is within an extensive area containing high elevations, mesic forests, and Canada lynx occurrence. The Three Peaks study area consists of an isolated zone of high elevation and mesic forests surrounded by inadequate habitat and is absent of Canada lynx. Mean hare pellet density in Birdseye Gulch was 2.48 pellets ± 0.46 (SE)/ (n = 49) versus 2.24 ± 0.48/m2 (n = 57) at Three Peaks. Models containing fine‐scale vegetation variables best explained pellet densities at Birdseye Gulch. Pellet densities at Three Peaks were best explained by topographical variables, with much unexplained variation within all models. The differing trends in these areas may be due to the absence of resident Canada lynx at Three Peaks and differences in topography between the areas. Our results indicate that snowshoe hare populations can persist in the type of isolated habitat that is increasingly common at the southern range periphery; however, the use of vegetation management to conserve habitat in these areas may be less effective because of weaker associations with vegetation structure.

Rainfall analysis over 31 years of Chintapalle, Visakhapatnam, High Altitude and Tribal zone, Andhra Pradesh, India

Climate change and variability, particularly which of the annual rainfall, has received a great deal of interest to researchers worldwide. The extent of the variability of rainfall varies according to locations. Consequently, investigating the dynamics of rainfall variable in the perspective of changing climate is important to evaluate the impact of climate change and adapt potential mitigation strategies. To gain insight, trend analysis has been employed to inspect and quantify the rainfall distribution in the Chintapalli, Visakhapatnam district of Andhra Pradesh, India. Thirty-one years for a period of 1990–2020 long historical rainfall data series for different temporal scales (Monthly, Seasonal and Annual) of the study region was used for the analysis. Statistical trend analysis techniques namely Mann–Kendall (MK) test was used to detect the trend. To compute trend magnitude, Theil–Sen approach (TSA) was used for calculation of Sen’s slope. The detailed analysis of the data for 31 years indicates positive increasing trend with 2.13mm per year derived from the linear regression. MK test detected that there were rising and falling trends for various time scales in the study area. Departure analysis of rainfall indicated that a possible chance of normal rainfall, more frequently in the area. Rainfall Anomaly Index (RAI) analysis revealed that normal for most of the years, however, 2002 is the very dry year. While last ten years, the frequency of drought occurrence is thrice, but the magnitude is low. The study results will help in persuading the rainfall risks with effective use of water resources which can increase crop productivity and likely to manage natural resources for sustainability at HAT zone of Andhra Pradesh.

Distribution of Species and Life Forms of the Genus Sambucus L. in Lori and Tavush Marzes of Armenia

Key words: vegetation, life forms, biometric indicators, forest, natural ecosystems, biological diversity The territory for our research belongs to the Ijevan floristic region, covers the basins of the Aghstev and Debed rivers. The purpose of the work is to identify the distribution areas, life forms of some species of the genus Sambucus nigra L. in the forest ecosystem of the Lori and Tavush marzes. The features of the distribution areas of species and life forms (trees, shrubs, herbs) of the genus Sambucus L. under the conditions of altitudinal zonality of these areas are determined. In the undergrowth of the surrounding forests of Vanadzor and Stepanavan, shrubs (up to 6 m) trees of the species Sambucus nigra L. It should be noted that the Black Elderberry outside the fores is represented only by trees and in the undergrowth – by shrubs. On the outskirts of the city of Vanadzor, at the foot of the forest, unpretentious shrub S.nigra. laciniata L. Zabel. grows. In Tavush Marz, particularly in the vicinity of Dilijan and Lake Parz Lich, all life forms are found. S. nigra L. and S. ebulus L. species are common in the vicinity of the city of Dilijan and the Dilijan National Park. Representatives of the Sambucus nigra L. species are found in the undergrowth of the mixed forest. Sambucus ebulus L. is found in clear thickets, in open, well-lit areas. Elderberry species grow almost everywhere, but are especially fruitful in full sun. There are approximately 25-40 individuals in the population. Due to the differences in climatic conditions in Lori and Tavush marzes, the stages of the growing season take place in different time periods.

Morphogenetic variations of Pinus sylvestris L. seedlings depending on altitude

Scotch pine is a primary species that spreads from sea level to very high altitudes in Turkey and has a very wide distribution area in the world. For this reason, it is important to investigate the variations of the species depending on the altitude. The research aims to determine the morphogenetic variations of the seedling characters in populations representing the vertical distribution area of Scotch pine and to reveal the within and among population variations in the vertical distribution areas. In the study, seedlings (three, four and five-year-old) grown from the seeds collected from five populations in the altitudinal zones up to 2,250 m from sea level in the natural distribution area of Scotch pine in Trabzon region were used. The seedling’s height, root collar diameter, the number of side branches and crown buds and sturdiness quotient were determined. As a result of the study, it was determined that there were statistically significant differences (p

Varijacije u anatomiji iglica običnog bora (Pinus sylvestris L.) s obzirom na staništa i nadmorsku visinu u Turskoj

In this study, eight Scots pine populations from Turkiye were studied to explore the influence of different habitats and altitudinal zones on the needle anatomical traits. A total of 496 needles belonging to 64 individuals were examined using light microscopy with the aim to score variability of sixteen needle anatomical traits. Variance analysis showed significant differences in needle thickness, needle width, resin canal number, resin canal diameter, central cylinder width, central cylinder thickness, endodermis cell number, endodermis width and endodermis thickness of eight populations depending on habitat zones. However, only resin canal diameter, endodermis width and endodermis thickness differ significantly in examined populations depending on altitudinal gradients. Cluster analysis showed the greatest similarities between the Bolu-Aladağ and Ardahan-Yalnızçam populations, and the most distinguishable population was the Giresun-Espiye population based on the anatomical characteristics of the needles. Although principal component analysis showed that needle width, central cylinder width, needle thickness, and central cylinder thickness had the greatest influence on the delimitation of Scots pine populations distributed in Turkiye, discrimination analysis did not separate the examined populations depending on the anatomical characteristics of the needles.

Towards a trait‐based framework for marine macroalgae: Using categorical data to explore the nature of emergent functional groups

Abstract While trait‐based approaches have been effectively leveraged by plant ecologists to advance our understanding of community responses to major global challenges, such as climate change and invasive species, the study of marine macroalgae is still mired in a functional group (FG) framework developed in the 1980s. In this paper, we used predominantly categorical data for 18 macroalgal traits that were accessible in public databases and/or the literature to explore their usefulness in a trait‐based framework for marine macroalgae. Species were clustered into emergent, data‐driven groups using a Gower dissimilarity matrix, then a k‐medoid clustering approach called partitioning around the medoids. We identified 14 emergent groups (EGs) that captured a spectrum of strategies used by different macroalgal species. However, significant ‘gaps’ in trait space may identify evolutionary constraints to algal adaptive strategies. Multivariate analysis showed how the 18 traits created trait space and drove the clustering. A spectrum of strategies and the influence of multiple traits imply that algal strategies are likely governed by complex multivariate, not bivariate, trade‐offs. Finally, we found that our EGs appeared to reflect multivariate trade‐offs and diverse ecological strategies more than the traditional FG model for macroalgae. We tested the usefulness of our EGs by comparing real‐world spatial distributions of species across habitats with known strong environmental filters to their area occupied in trait space. We found significant separation in trait space and divergent occupancy patterns across global distributions, attachment substrates and elevational zones. These results support the use of categorical data accessible in the literature as a useful step towards developing trait‐based ecology for marine macroalgae. Synthesis. Our findings indicate that readily accessible categorical traits produce emergent FGs that reflect environmental filtering and therefore demonstrate the power of trait‐based approaches over the current FG framework. Furthermore, we posit that categorical traits are a valuable and potentially complementary addition to a newly developing database of continuous traits because they encompass a broader, more globally accessible set of traits.

Environmental predictors may change at fine scale habitat suitability modelling: implications for conservation of Kashmir musk deer in three protected areas of Uttarakhand, India.

The Kashmir musk deer (Moschus cupreus, hereafter KMD) is one of the top conservation priority species which is facing population decline due to poaching, habitat loss, and climate change. Therefore, the long-term survival and viability of KMD populations in their natural habitat require conservation and management of suitable habitats. Hence, the present study attempted to assess the suitable habitat of KMD in three protected areas (PAs) of the Western Himalayan region of Uttarakhand using the Maxent modelling algorithm. Our results suggest that Kedarnath wildlife sanctuary (KWLS) possesses the maximum highly suitable habitats (22.55%) of KMD, followed by Govind Pashu Vihar National Park & Sanctuary (GPVNP&S; 8.33%) and Gangotri National Park (GNP; 5%). Among the environmental variables, altitude was the major contributing factor governing the distribution of KMD in KWLS. In contrast, human footprint in GPVNP&S and precipitation in GNP were the major contributing factors governing the distribution of KMD in these respective PAs. The response curve indicated that habitats with less disturbance falling in the altitudinal zone of 2000-4000m were the most suitable habitat range for the distribution of KMD in all three PAs. However, in the case of GNP suitable habitat of KMD increases with an increase in the value of variables bio_13 (precipitation of wettest month). Further, based on our results, we believe that the predictors of suitable habitat change are site specific and cannot be generalized in the entire distribution range of the species. Therefore, the present study will be helpful in making proper habitat management actions at fine scale for the conservation of KMD.