Electronic Control Unit Research Articles

An Effective Ensemble Learning-Based Real-Time Intrusion Detection Scheme for an In-Vehicle Network

The emergence of connected and autonomous vehicles has led to complex network architectures for electronic control unit (ECU) communication. The controller area network (CAN) enables the transmission of data inside vehicle networks. However, although it has low latency and enjoys data broadcast capability, it is vulnerable to attacks on security. The lack of effectiveness of conventional security mechanisms in addressing these vulnerabilities poses a danger to vehicle safety. This study presents an intrusion detection system (IDS) that accurately detects and classifies CAN bus attacks in real-time using ensemble techniques and the Kappa Architecture. The Kappa Architecture enables real-time attack detection, while ensemble learning combines multiple machine learning classifiers to enhance the accuracy of attack detection. The scheme utilizes ensemble methods with Kappa Architecture’s real-time data analysis to detect common CAN bus attacks. This study entails the development and evaluation of supervised models, which are further enhanced using ensemble techniques. The accuracy, precision, recall, and F1 score are used to measure the scheme’s effectiveness. The stacking ensemble technique outperformed individual supervised models and other ensembles with accuracy, precision, recall, and F1 of 0.985, 0.987, and 0.985, respectively.

Safety Concepts for Future Electromechanical Brake Actuators

<div>A growing interest in electromechanical brakes (EMB) is discernible in the automotive industry finding its climax in an announcement of EMB series production in late 2022 [<span>1</span>]. The introduction of EMB allows for new design opportunities using distributed software on smart actuators. However, additional efforts are needed to ensure continuously high levels of safety even when established design principles in the brake system are changed.</div> <div>This article discusses different safety concepts that could potentially be put in place in EMB actuators. Therefore, safety goals that need to be satisfied by an actuator are derived. Furthermore, three different degrees of complexity are differentiated, evolving to different required electronic control units (ECU) and architectures. Additionally, also the safety of the actuation unit (AU) is considered to realize a holistic safety concept for the actuator. Finally, a conclusion is drawn comparing the different investigated concepts.</div>

Intrusion detection system for controller area network

The rapid expansion of intra-vehicle networks has increased the number of threats to such networks. Most modern vehicles implement various physical and data-link layer technologies. Vehicles are becoming increasingly autonomous and connected. Controller area network (CAN) is a serial bus system that is used to connect sensors and controllers (electronic control units—ECUs) within a vehicle. ECUs vary widely in processing power, storage, memory, and connectivity. The goal of this research is to design, implement, and test an efficient and effective intrusion detection system for intra-vehicle CANs. Classic cryptographic approaches are resource-intensive and increase processing delay, thereby not meeting CAN latency requirements. There is a need for a system that is capable of detecting intrusions in almost real-time with minimal resources. Our research proposes a long short-term memory (LSTM) network to detect anomalies and a decision engine to detect intrusions by using multiple contextual parameters. We have tested our anomaly detection algorithm and our decision engine using data from real automobiles. We present the results of our experiments and analyze our findings. After detailed evaluation of our system, we believe that we have designed a vehicle security solution that meets all the outlined requirements and goals.

Stress corrosion cracking of leaded brass used in oil temperature sensor of vehicle

In today’s modern age, many kinds of sensors are used in cars. Sensors used in automobiles monitor the performance of the entire vehicle. They are used to control and process oil, temperature, emission level, coolant level, etc. In vehicle engine, oil is pumped under high-pressure throughout the engine system to lubricate the engine parts that are in constant friction. By doing so, it also transfers away heat from these engine parts. As the oil travels around the motor, large amount of heat keeps being absorbed and transferred. It eventually reaches engine sump where it is cooled using a coolant, and then again recirculated through the engine. In this process, overheating of this oil can greatly affect its viscosity and reduce its efficiency, eventually causing performance issue of the engine. To prevent overheating, temperature oil sensors are used, that continuously send data to the Electronic Control Unit (ECU) then subsequently ECU adjusts and regulates the fuel quantity and ignition timing. Oil Temperature Sensors (OTS) usually consists of three parts: brass body, thermistor unit and a coupler unit. For continuous temperature monitoring, the brass body is continuously in contact with the engine oil that are based on sulphates and ammoniate, under high pressure and elevated temperature. In present study, we observed leakage failure in the brass body of OTS and conducted root cause failure analysis. The basic objective of failure analysis is to identify the overall damage mode like: mechanical overload, environmental degradation / corrosion, fatigue etc. and its type and root-cause leading to the failure and its understanding help to mitigate similar failures in near future. In the present work, the failed / cracked brass body material was analyzed by using Scanning Electron Microscopy attached with Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy for identifying mechanisms of corrosion failures in OTS brass body components is highlighted. Failure analysis of cracked brass body showed the Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC) failure which is further confirmed by multiple crack branching and Intergranular (IG) fracture.

AI-Based Virtual Sensing of Gaseous Pollutant Emissions at the Tailpipe of a High-Performance Vehicle

<div>This scientific publication presents the application of artificial intelligence (AI) techniques as a virtual sensor for tailpipe emissions of CO, NOx, and HC in a high-performance vehicle. The study aims to address critical challenges faced in real industrial applications, including signal alignment and signal dynamics management. A comprehensive pre-processing pipeline is proposed to tackle these issues, and a light gradient-boosting machine (LightGBM) model is employed to estimate emissions during real driving cycles. The research compares two modeling approaches: one involving a unique “direct model” and another using a “two-stage model” which leverages distinct models for the engine and the aftertreatment. The findings suggest that the direct model strikes the best balance between simplicity and accuracy. Furthermore, the study investigates two sensor setups: a standard configuration and an optimized one, which incorporates an additional lambda probe in the exhaust line after the main catalyst. The results indicate a significant enhancement in performance for NOx and CO estimations with the introduction of the third lambda probe, while HC results remain relatively unchanged. Additionally, the AI model is tested on two different electronic control unit (ECU) software calibrations, yielding excellent results in both cases. This suggests that machine learning models are robust to control software variation and can be used to optimize software calibrations in a virtual environment, reducing the reliance on extensive experimental testing. Moreover, the AI model’s performance demonstrates compatibility with real-time implementation. In conclusion, this work establishes the viability and efficiency of AI techniques in accurately estimating tailpipe emissions from an engine in an industrial context. The study showcases the potential for AI to contribute to emission estimation and optimization processes, offering a promising pathway for an innovative industrial practice.</div>

ANALYZING THE CAN PROTOCOL: VULNERABILITIES, PROTECTIVE MEASURES AND IMPROVEMENTS

The Controller Area Network (CAN) bus, originally designed for internal communication among a limited number of Electronic Control Units (ECUs) within vehicles, faces significant security challenges due to the rapid expansion of ECUs in modern automobiles. This expansion necessitates accessibility for diagnostic purposes, yet the CAN protocol lacks fundamental security features such as encryption, authentication, and integrity checks, rendering it vulnerable to various attacks including message injection, Denial of Service (DoS), and masquerading ECUs. This paper surveys existing literature and investigates potential intrusions on the CAN bus, highlighting attacks ranging from GPS spoofing to remote sensor tampering. Various solutions are discussed, including network subdivision, encryption, authentication techniques, and intrusion detection systems (IDS). Recent research proposes IDS solutions utilizing machine learning algorithms such as Random Forest, Support Vector Machine, and Deep Neural Networks (DNN), demonstrating effectiveness in detecting known attacks. However, challenges persist in identifying unknown attacks and enhancing overall system performance. Innovative approaches, such as event-triggered detection and bloom filtering techniques, show promise in mitigating specific attack vectors but may introduce overhead or limitations in real-time response. Deep learning-based IDS systems exhibit high performance but struggle with the detection of novel attacks. Furthermore, while some solutions address specific vulnerabilities, others propose more comprehensive security measures, such as preventing remote manipulation of critical vehicle functions like steering and braking. Overall, the research emphasizes the critical need for robust security measures in automotive systems to safeguard against evolving threats to vehicle safety and integrity.

Electronic control and measurement unit of conductometric nitrogen dioxide sensor in the atmosphere

High levels of air pollution lead to various negative consequences, including deterioration in public health. One of the main air pollutants in industrial cities is nitrogen dioxide. Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) is produced by various industrial processes. It is highly toxic and can cause various diseases such as bronchitis, asthma and other respiratory diseases. Despite all efforts to reduce NO2 emissions, the problem of air pollution remains relevant. Therefore, it is important to continue research into the development of new methods for continuous atmospheric monitoring and timely detection of emissions. One of the main tasks of the modern branch of science in the development of a monitoring system is the development of a sensitive, reliable and inexpensive gas sensor for NO2 in the air. The tasks of this work are design, construct, assemble and test a new original electronic control and measurement unit for a previously developed conductometric sensor for nitrogen dioxide in the atmosphere which is capable of recording and interpreting the signal in the form of a numerical response and displaying it on the screen. As a result of the work carried out, a new original electronic control and measurement unit was developed and constructed for the previously developed conductometric gas sensor for nitrogen dioxide in the atmosphere which is capable of recording and interpreting the signal in the form of a numerical response and displaying it on the screen. The developed device was tested in a system with a gas sensor with a p-type semiconductor gas-sensitive element. It has been established that for a model atmosphere of 50 ppm NO2 + N2, the sensor response recorded by the developed device is equal to (10,4 ± 0,2)∙10-3, and for a model atmosphere of 10 ppm NO2 + N2 – (6,2 ± 0,2)∙10-3. The obtained values can be used to determine the concentration of nitrogen dioxide under real atmospheric monitoring conditions.

Vehicle health inspection with enhanced auto diagnostics and maintenance

This paper provides a comprehensive and cost-effective solution for automotive health maintenance and diagnostics. The software performs checks and analyses of key vehicle parameters through the use of the OBD-II (On-Board Diagnostics-II) port on the car. The port has to be physically connected to an interface called the ELM327 Bluetooth or Wi-Fi module that connects to the Android device running the software through Bluetooth or Wi-Fi. On a successful connection, the user can use the software to check the status of electronic control units (ECUs) throughout the vehicle to point out malfunctioning components and change the configurations of some of these electronic control units. The vehicle reports back a log with Diagnostics Trouble Codes (DTCs) that indicates the number of problems that have been found, if there are any.

Кратковременная топливная коррекция бензинового двигателя по напряжению датчика кислорода в процессе эксплуатации автомобиля

The object of the study was fuel trim of the air-fuel mixture, in particular, short-term fuel trim by voltage change of the oxygen sensor installed before the catalytic converter during vehicle operation. Experimental studies were on the Bishkek – Osh (Kyrgyz Republic) highway at an altitude of 750–3200 m above sea level. It is characterized by flat, mountainous and high mountainous vehicle operating conditions. The experimental studies results were used to graph the dependence of short-term fuel trim on the change of oxygen sensor voltage during vehicle operation. The values of fuel trim parameters can be used to assess the state of the air-fuel mixture, as well as to make a conclusion about the technical condition of sensors, systems and mechanisms of the engine and elements of the car exhaust system. In addition, in normal operation of the engine, when the fluctuation of fuel correction indicators is ±10 %, fuel-economic and environmental indicators will be in fit. It should also be recognized that the modern automobile engines have a system of various sensors and electronic engine control unit, but they have their certain disadvantages in ensuring the stoichiometric composition of the air-fuel mixture (λ = 1).

A Real-Time Automotive Safety System Based on Advanced AI Facial Detection Algorithms

This research aims to design and implement a complete safety and comfort device that integrates a Driving Monitoring System (DMS) and a car Seat Electronic Control Unit (SECU). The DMS employs a combination of infrared sensors and a pre-trained Artificial Intelligence (AI) algorithm with advanced facial recognition capabilities. It aims to monitor and control the driver's distraction and drowsiness level during daytime and nighttime driving conditions by accurately detecting head pose and eye status. If the system detects the driver is drowsy or distracted from the road, a warning system will be activated by sending an electrical signal to the aforementioned car SECU. The designed SECU initiates a car seat vibration and triggers an audible signal to alert the driver of a dangerous situation by managing the seat movement process and protection features. It provides the basic drive and control of the seat motor drivers and position sensors. The most important consideration of this SECU is meeting the following requirements: real-time control of various motors, fast processing speed, low power, low heat dissipation, low quiescent current, and low Electromagnetic Interference (EMI). The two systems were integrated into a single compact device that includes a night vision camera mounted on the steering column to record data without obstructing the driver's view. The system has high precision at a maximum detection rate of 45 Frames Per Second (FPS) in real-time. Furthermore, the system is robust under actual driving conditions without being affected by the time of day, facial expressions, or eye occlusions.

СПЕЦИФИКА ДИАГНОСТИКИ СИСТЕМЫ ВПРЫСКА ДВС В УСЛОВИЯХ ОГРАНИЧЕННЫХ ТЕХНИЧЕСКИХ ВОЗМОЖНОСТЕЙ ОСНАЩЕНИЯ СТАНЦИИ ТЕХНИЧЕСКОГО ОБСЛУЖИВАНИЯ

The article is devoted to the problems of diagnostics of gasoline engines of passenger cars of domestic and foreign production, regardless of their brands and models with an injection system, under limited conditions, the technical possibility of equipping the engine diagnostic station with the necessary instruments and equipment, as well as qualified specialists. The number of growing cars in one year in Russia is approximately 2.3%, while the model range is updated by 1%. The functionality of car electronics due to the introduction and implementation (pulse width modulators, without wired data transmission systems, increased sensors and video surveillance cameras, alarms and can bus) increases by 10%, thereby outstripping the production and technical base of car service stations. The use and implementation of the can bus (high-speed data transmission) allows electronic control units of modern cars to help the driver in non-standard situations on highways and monitor the driver's actions in emergency cases in order to avoid a traffic accident, in addition, the electronic system allows you to execute voice commands of the driver or passengers, thereby eliminating mechanical impact on the control buttons of that or another function. Given the complexity and modernity of diagnostic equipment, appropriate personnel who have received qualified training in the region under consideration are also needed. The problems in the diagnosis of new cars with extensive electronic systems capabilities and the non-compliance of most service stations and diagnostic points of the passenger car engine injection system in a particular region of the Republic of Dagestan with the level of development and compliance of the production and technical base meeting the requirements for qualified repair of modern cars of domestic and foreign production, for objective reasons, have been studied and investigated. Effective methods of equipping the diagnostic post with various equipment with minimal loss of occupied space are recommended.

Evolving Electric Mobility Energy Efficiency: In-Depth Analysis of Integrated Electronic Control Unit Development in Electric Vehicles

Evolving Electric Mobility Energy Efficiency: In-Depth Analysis of Integrated Electronic Control Unit Development in Electric Vehicles

Application of the Semi-Markov Processes to Model the Enercon E82-2 Preventive Wind Turbine Maintenance System

The share of wind energy in the energy mix is continuously increasing. However, a very important issue associated with its generation is the high failure rate of wind turbines. This situation particularly concerns large wind turbines, which are expensive and have a lower tolerance for system damage caused by various failures and faults. Vulnerable components include sensors, electronic control units, electrical systems, hydraulic systems, generators, gearboxes, rotor blades, and so on. As a result, significant emphasis is placed on improving the reliability, availability, and productivity of wind turbines. It is extremely important to detect and identify abnormalities as early as possible and predict potential failures and damages and the remaining useful life of components. One way to ensure turbine efficiency is to plan and implement preventive repairs. This work shows a semi-Markov model of a preventive maintenance system based on Enercon E82-2 wind turbines. The system’s performance quality is evaluated based on profit over time and an asymptotic availability coefficient. The developed model establishes formulas describing the efficiency functions and formulates the conditions for the existence of extremes (maxima) of these functions. Computational examples provided at the end of the paper illustrate the obtained research results. A preventive maintenance model is developed that can be applied to wind turbine hazard prevention (determining optimal times for wind turbine preventive maintenance).

Automotive Cybersecurity Application Based on CARDIAN

Nowadays, a vehicle can contain from 20 to 100 ECUs, which are responsible for ordering, controlling and monitoring all the components of the vehicle itself. Each of these units can also send and receive information to other units on the network or externally. For most vehicles, the controller area network (CAN) is the main communication protocol and system used to build their internal network. Technological development, the growing integration of devices and the numerous advances in the field of connectivity have allowed the vehicle to become connected, and the flow of information exchanged between the various ECUs (electronic control units) becomes increasingly important and varied. Furthermore, the vehicle itself is capable of exchanging information with other vehicles, with the surrounding environment and with the Internet. As shown by the CARDIAN project, this type of innovation allows the user an increasingly safe and varied driving experience, but at the same time, it introduces a series of vulnerabilities and dangers due to the connection itself. The job of making the vehicle safe therefore becomes critical. In recent years, it has been demonstrated in multiple ways how easy it is to compromise the safety of a vehicle and its passengers by injecting malicious messages into the CAN network present inside the vehicle itself. The purpose of this article is the construction of a system that, integrated within the vehicle network, is able to effectively recognize any type of intrusion and tampering.

Results and review of IASF-2023

On 18–19 October 2023, the annual International Automobile Scientific Forum (IASF-2023) “Ensuring Competitiveness of Russian Automotive Industry until 2035” took place, dedicated to the 105th anniversary of FSUE “NAMI”. The event format assumed both offline and online participation. The issues of providing technological sovereignty of the Russian automotive industry and development of the domestic component base, technical and technological developments in the field of innovative land vehicles and systems were discussed during the Forum. Within the Forum, an exhibition of technical achievements of FSUE “NAMI” and manufacturers of automotive vehicles and components was held dedicated to competitiveness of the Russian automotive industry. Components of electric, hybrid and intelligent vehicles, electronic control units, assemblies and aggregates of powertrains, electric traction vehicles and hybrid vehicles with additional power sources were also presented. There was a competition held in two categories: “Best Student Scientific Paper” and “Best Graduate Student and Young Specialist Scientific Paper”. 20 applications were filed for the competition from the educational, scientific and production companies and organizations.

ICVTest: A Practical Black-Box Penetration Testing Framework for Evaluating Cybersecurity of Intelligent Connected Vehicles

Intelligent connected vehicles (ICVs) are equipped with extensive electronic control units which offer convenience but also pose significant cybersecurity risks. Penetration testing, recommended in ISO/SAE 21434 “Road vehicles—Cybersecurity engineering”, is an effective approach to identify cybersecurity vulnerabilities in ICVs. However, there is limited research on vehicle penetration testing from a black-box perspective due to the complex architecture of ICVs. Additionally, no penetration testing framework has been proposed to guide security testers on conducting penetration testing for the whole vehicle. The lack of framework guidance results in the inexperienced security testers being uncertain about the processes to follow for conducting penetration testing. Moreover, the inexperienced security testers are unsure about which tests to perform in order to systematically evaluate the vehicle’s cybersecurity. To enhance the penetration testing efficiency of ICVs, this paper presents a black-box penetration testing framework, ICVTest. ICVTest proposes a standardized penetration testing process to facilitate step-by-step completion of the penetration testing, thereby addressing the issue of inexperienced testers lacking guidance on how to initiate work when confronted with ICV. Also, ICVTest includes 10 sets of test cases covering hardware and software security tests. Testers can select appropriate test cases based on the specific cybersecurity threats faced by the target object, thereby reducing the complexity of penetration testing tasks. Furthermore, we have developed a vehicle cybersecurity testing platform for ICVTest that seamlessly integrates various testing tools. The platform enables even novice testers to conduct vehicle black-box penetration testing in accordance with the given guidance which addresses the current industry’s challenge of an overwhelming number of testing tasks coupled with a shortage of skilled professionals. For the first time, we propose a comprehensive black-box penetration testing framework and implement the framework in the form of a cybersecurity testing platform. We apply ICVTest to evaluate an electric vehicle manufactured in 2021 for assessing the framework’s availability. With the aid of ICVTest, even testers with limited experience in automotive penetration can effectively evaluate the security risks of ICVs. In our experiments, numerous cybersecurity vulnerabilities were identified involving in-vehicle sensors, remote vehicle control systems, and in-vehicle controller area network (CAN) bus.

Model-based development of software for network control of automotive vehicles’ equipment

BACKGROUND: Various devices and systems connected via onboard network with electronic control unit are the part of automotive vehicles’ equipment. Such devices and systems, which ensure the operability of a vehicle or are the elements of technological units, having microprocessor control, are based on various physical principles. Designers of such devices and systems may not have sufficient knowledge and experience to develop the software independently, which applies to the development of software for the network control.
 AIM: The development of software for information subsystem of a technical device that interacts with an electronic control unit via onboard network as part of automotive vehicles’ equipment, as well as the demonstration of application of model-based programming tools in this development.
 METHODS: A comprehensive description of technical solutions developed to achieve the listed aims using methods of system analysis and methods for developing and debugging of software is given. According to these methods, model-based programming tools are used as handlers for built-in interface modules of microcontroller and elements of software layout. Software elements for processing received messages, performing actions with the data received in them, as well as generation of response messages have been developed in the C language.
 RESULTS: Software that processes messages received by a device subordinated to an electronic control unit via the CAN network, generates response messages addressed to this unit, and sends them has been developed. The method of access to the receiving buffer of the network interface and priority of software execution are taken into account.
 CONCLUSION: It is shown that model-based programming in combination with programming tools based on structured text is an effective software development technology that is convenient for designers of technical devices and systems based on various physical principles and requiring microprocessor control. In particular, the abovementioned should be attributed to specialists in the field of electrical engineering who develop equipment for automotive vehicles.

Strengthening Automotive Cybersecurity: A Comparative Analysis of ISO/SAE 21434-Compliant Automatic Collision Notification (ACN) Systems

The increasing usage of autonomous and automatic systems within the automotive industry is steering us towards a more interconnected world. This enhanced interconnectivity fosters a more streamlined driving experience, reduces costs, and provides timely driver assistance. The electric/electronic (EE) architectures of modern vehicles are inherently complex due to the multitude of components they encompass. Contemporary architectures reveal that these components converge at an electronic control unit (ECU) called the central gateway, which could potentially represent a single point of failure. While this central unit is typically adequately safeguarded, the same cannot be said for the connected components, which often remain vulnerable to cyber threats. The ISO/SAE 21434 standard paved the way for automotive cybersecurity and could be used in parallel with other standards such as ISO 26262 and ISO PAS 21488. Automatic collision notification (ACN) is one of the most typical systems in a vehicle, and limited effort has been dedicated to identifying the most suitable architecture for this feature. This paper addresses the existing security and privacy gap of this feature by conducting a comparative analysis of security threats in two distinct ACN architectures. Notably, despite ACN architectures exhibiting inherent similarities, the primary distinction between the two architectures lies in their strategies for crash estimation and detection, followed by subsequent communication with emergency response teams. A rigorous security assessment was conducted using the ISO/SAE 21434 standard, employing the TARA and STRIDE methodologies through the Ansys medini analyze software. This analysis identified an average of 310 threats per architecture, including a significant number of high-level threats (11.8% and 15%, respectively), highlighting the importance of a comprehensive evaluation.

Risk Management Strategies for Chip Supply Chain Disruption: Case Study of R Automotive Manufacturing Company

This article addresses the chip supply chain problems faced by the global automobile industry, takes R automotive manufacturing company as a case study, and thoroughly researches the risk of the out-of-supply of the key raw material, chips, in the automobile manufacturing industry and its impact on the production of the enterprise. The article explains the importance of supply chain management in modern enterprises and points out supply chain risks. Taking the automotive manufacturing industry as the background, the article discusses in depth the importance of micro-control units as the electronic control units of automobiles, analyses the competitive advantages of R enterprises in the new energy vehicle market, analyses the risk characteristics of chip out-of-supply as well as the challenges faced by R enterprises under the influence of the global epidemic and market uncertainty, and proposes the strategies for R enterprises to cope with the risk of chip out-of-supply, including the strengthening of supply chain cooperation, formulating a reasonable procurement mechanism, establishing a good supplier relationship, and promoting independent research and development of chips. Finally, the findings of this paper are summarized, and relevant suggestions are provided for automotive manufacturing enterprises to avoid the risk of chip supply shortage.

In-Vehicle Data Communication with CAN &Security Monitoring: A Review

Automobiles are now being created with more electronic components for efficient functioning such as Anti Lock Braking system, Adaptive Cruise Control, Traction control system, Airbag, Power Steering etc. managed by networked controllers that include hundreds of ECUs (electronic control units) that can coordinate, control, and monitor loads of internal vehicle components. Each component, such as ABS, TCS (Traction control system), tire pressure monitoring system and telematics system, may communicate with nearby components over the CAN (Controller Area Network) bus, establishing an in-vehicle communication network. These modern automobile system networks intended for safety with minimal consideration for security have drawn the attention of researchers for providing security in CAN. The Paper reviews the behavior and vulnerabilities of CAN within an in-vehicle network including various attacks possible in CAN along with the proposed solutions in the literature with extensive survey on a security promising approach named as IDS (Intrusion detection system).