Election Protocol Research Articles

Improved Stable Election Protocol with Self-Controlled Mobile Sink for Energy Management in WSNs

Improved Stable Election Protocol with Self-Controlled Mobile Sink for Energy Management in WSNs

Improvement of the Low-Energy Adaptive Clustering Hierarchy Protocol in Wireless Sensor Networks Using Mean Field Games.

The Low-Energy Adaptive Clustering Hierarchy (LEACH) protocol is a widely used method for managing energy consumption in Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs). However, it has limitations that affect network longevity and performance. This paper presents an improved version of the LEACH protocol, termed MFG-LEACH, which incorporates the Mean Field Game (MFG) theory to optimize energy efficiency and network lifetime. The proposed MFG-LEACH protocol addresses the imbalances in energy consumption by modeling the interactions among nodes as a game, where each node optimizes its transmission energy based on the collective state of the network. We conducted extensive simulations to compare MFG-LEACH with Enhanced Zonal Stable Election Protocol (EZ-SEP), Energy-Aware Multi-Hop Routing (EAMR), and Balanced Residual Energy routing (BRE) protocols. The results demonstrate that MFG-LEACH significantly reduces energy consumption and increases the number of packets received across different node densities, thereby validating the effectiveness of our approach.

Multris: Functional Verification of Multiparty Message Passing in Separation Logic

We introduce Multris, a separation logic for verifying functional correctness of programs that combine multiparty message-passing communication with shared-memory concurrency. The foundation of our work is a novel concept of multiparty protocol consistency, which guarantees safe communication among a set of parties, provided each party adheres to its prescribed protocol. Our concept of protocol consistency is inspired by the bottom-up approach for multiparty session types. However, by considering it in the context of separation logic instead of a type system, we go further in terms of generality by supporting new notions of implicit transfer of knowledge and implicit transfer of resources. We develop tactics for automatically verifying protocol consistency and for reasoning about message-passing operations in Multris. We evaluate Multris on a range of examples, including the well-known two- and three-buyer protocols, as well as a new verification benchmark based on Chang and Roberts's ring leader election protocol. To ensure the reliability of our work, we prove soundness of Multris w.r.t. a low-level channel semantics using the Iris framework in Coq.

Synchronous Distributed Key Generation without Broadcasts

Distributed key generation (DKG) is a key building block in developing many efficient threshold cryptosystems. This work initiates the study of communication complexity and round complexity of DKG protocols over a point-to-point (bounded) synchronous network. Our key result is the first synchronous DKG protocol for discrete log-based cryptosystems with O ( κ n 3 ) communication complexity ( κ denotes a security parameter) that tolerates any t < n / 2 Byzantine faults among n parties. We present two variants of the protocol: (i) a protocol with worst-case O ( κ n 3 ) communication and O ( t ) rounds, and (ii) a protocol with expected O ( κ n 3 ) communication and expected constant rounds. In the process of achieving our results, we design (1) a novel weak gradecast protocol with a communication complexity of O ( κ n 2 ) for linear-sized inputs and constant rounds, (2) a protocol called “recoverable-set-of-shares” for ensuring recovery of shared secrets, (3) an oblivious leader election protocol with O ( κ n 3 ) communication and constant rounds, and (4) a multi-valued validated Byzantine agreement (MVBA) protocol with O ( κ n 3 ) communication complexity for linear-sized inputs and expected constant rounds. Each of these primitives is of independent interest.

Secondary cluster head based SEP in heterogeneous WSNs for IoT applications

AbstractA wireless sensor network (WSN) consists of specialized sensor nodes that perform sensing services for Internet of Things devices with limited battery power. As the replacement or recharging of batteries is not possible, energy consumption becomes the most important design issue in WSNs. The energy‐efficient routing protocol gets the most priority in such energy‐constrained networks. The utilization of clustering‐based routing protocols like stable election protocol (SEP) has gained much attention as the network's lifetime is significantly improved due to the clustering of sensor nodes. Moreover, the inclusion of a secondary CH (SCH) is beneficial when the member node with the most remaining energy performs data aggregation and reduces the energy burden of the CH. This article characterizes SEP and Prolong SEP (P‐SEP) protocols and then extends them by incorporating SCH, which ensures balanced energy consumption. The performance of the proposed Extended SEP and Extended P‐SEP protocols has been analysed regarding stability period, network lifetime, energy usage and throughput. The simulation results demonstrate that the proposed protocols outperform state‐of‐the‐art protocols like P‐SEP, Modified SEP (M‐SEP) and SEP. In particular, the stability period of Extended SEP and Extended P‐SEP has improved up to 42% and 89%, respectively, compared to M‐SEP.

Integrated energy-efficient and location-aware routing in wireless sensor networks

Sensor nodes in wireless sensor networks are commonly distributed randomly across a given landscape, and their placement may be randomized for specific applications, even extending to national deployments. The energy consumption associated with data transmission and reception by the cluster’s leader is notably higher compared to other nodes. To address this issue, it is recommended that wireless sensor networks adopt a more energy-efficient routing technique. This proposed technique assumes a spatial separation between different node types. Elevating the threshold enhances the likelihood that nodes with ample remaining power will endure as cluster leaders. Ultimately, a hybrid data transfer strategy is formulated, wherein data is directly exchanged between the base station and cluster heads among the super nodes containing advanced nodes. Most nodes employ a combination of single-hop and multi-hop approaches for data transport, aiming to minimize the power required for transmission between the cluster’s control node and the base station. According to simulation results, this proposed method surpasses the stable election protocol (SEP), demonstrating superiority over the improved threshold-sensitive stable election protocol in terms of the operational duration of a wireless sensor network.

ZSGEEHCP: Zonal Stable Gateway Based Energy Efficient Heterogeneous Clustering Protocol For WSN- Based IoT.

In future most of the devices on the earth connected to the internet for making world of intelligent networks. The internet of things (IoT) and Industrial IoT play a very significant role for implementing such kind of smart networks. So, in that case, the transmission of packets of data sent to the base station from sensor nodes with minimum energy consumption in a homogeneous or heterogeneous environment to hike the stability of the network appears as a big challenge for IoT-based networks. But, such kind of problem can be overcome by using a proper clustering algorithm. In this work, different kinds of classical clustering algorithms are studied precisely. Most of the traditional clustering algorithm protocols presume that all the nodes have the same amount of energy, they are unable to fully exploit the presence of node heterogeneity and the same problem will be faced with IoT-based networks. In this specific piece of work, we recommend a gateway based heterogeneous energy-based clustering algorithm which is crucial for many wireless sensor networks along with IoT-based applications. In this concept geographical area is divided into three zone, Advanced, Intermediate and normal zone. Here, advance nodes send data through gateway to the base station while intermediate node use clustering algorithm for transferring data and normal nodes communicate data to the base station directly. ZSGHCP is driven by the mounded election protocol probabilities of each node elected as a cluster head depending on the rest of the energy. By simulation, we show that ZSGHCP invariably extends the stability time as compared to current clustering procedures. Finally, we investigate the sensitivity of our ZSGHCP protocol to network heterogeneity characteristics that capture energy imbalance, throughput, and no of alive nodes. We construct that ZSGHCP payout extends the durability region for excessive values of additional energy brought by extra higher-powered nodes.

Recipient hepatectomy technique may affect oncological outcomes of liver transplantation for hepatocellular carcinoma.

To date, caval sparing (CS) and total caval replacement (TCR) for recipient hepatectomy in liver transplantation (LT) have been compared only in terms of surgical morbidity. Nonetheless, the CS technique is inherently associated with an increased manipulation of the native liver and later exclusion of the venous outflow, which may increase the risk of intraoperative shedding of tumor cells when LT is performed for HCC. A multicenter, retrospective study was performed to assess the impact of recipient hepatectomy (CS vs. TCR) on the risk of posttransplant HCC recurrence among 16 European transplant centers that used either TCR or CS recipient hepatectomy as an elective protocol technique. Exclusion criteria comprised cases of non-center-protocol recipient hepatectomy technique, living-donor LT, HCC diagnosis suspected on preoperative imaging but not confirmed at the pathological examination of the explanted liver, HCC in close contact with the IVC, and previous liver resection for HCC. In 2420 patients, CS and TCR approaches were used in 1452 (60%) and 968 (40%) cases, respectively. Group adjustment with inverse probability weighting was performed for high-volume center, recipient age, alcohol abuse, viral hepatitis, Child-Pugh class C, Model for End-Stage Liver Disease score, cold ischemia time, clinical HCC stage within Milan criteria, pre-LT downstaging/bridging therapies, pre-LT alphafetoprotein serum levels, number and size of tumor nodules, microvascular invasion, and complete necrosis of all tumor nodules (matched cohort, TCR, n = 938; CS, n = 935). In a multivariate cause-specific hazard model, CS was associated with a higher risk of HCC recurrence (HR: 1.536, p = 0.007). In conclusion, TCR recipient hepatectomy, compared to the CS approach, may be associated with some protective effect against post-LT tumor recurrence.

Regular Abstractions for Array Systems

Verifying safety and liveness over array systems is a highly challenging problem. Array systems naturally capture parameterized systems such as distributed protocols with an unbounded number of processes. Such distributed protocols often exploit process IDs during their computation, resulting in array systems whose element values range over an infinite domain. In this paper, we develop a novel framework for proving safety and liveness over array systems. The crux of the framework is to overapproximate an array system as a string rewriting system (i.e. over a finite alphabet) by means of a new predicate abstraction that exploits the so-called indexed predicates. This allows us to tap into powerful verification methods for string rewriting systems that have been heavily developed in the last two decades or so (e.g. regular model checking). We demonstrate how our method yields simple, automatically verifiable proofs of safety and liveness properties for challenging examples, including Dijkstra's self-stabilizing protocol and the Chang-Roberts leader election protocol.

Routing Methods For Data Transmission In Large Networks: A Review

A wireless sensor network (WSN) is a network consisting of miniaturized smart sensors communicating the information gathered or collected from a monitored environment via a wireless link. The sensors are capable of sensing the events within their environment, process the data, and transmit the data to the base station (BS). The entire processing of data and subsequent transmission to BS requires high energy consumption. The operation of WSN is limited by repeated dead nodes, which results in energy depletion. Hence, to prolong the life-span of the network, several routing protocols have been developed. However, the effectiveness of these protocols has not been well examined in terms of increasing node population for a given WSN field or area. Therefore, in this work the effect of increasing node density on cluster based energy-efficient routing protocols in wireless sensor network was analysed. The implemented routing protocols were Low Energy Adaptive Clustering Hierarchy LEACH, stable election protocol (SEP), and zone-SEP (Z-SEP). The dimension of the WSN was 100 × 100 square metre area with varying number of sensor nodes: 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, and 100. The results of the simulation conducted in MATLAB revealed that increasing node density resulted in increased alive node and throughput (measures in terms of transmitted number of packets). On the contrary, the protocol with the best performance was ZSEP.

𝑃c𝜀𝜅max-Means++: Adapt-𝑃 Driven by Energy and Distance Quality Probabilities Based on 𝜅-Means++ for the Stable Election Protocol (SEP)

Attaining a prolonged network lifetime, maximized coverage, and high performance are vital design factors that have to be maintained in a Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN). Such factors are dependent on the stability and optimality of the protocol employed to formulate Sensor Nodes (SNs) into mutual clusters that effectively work around fulfilling specific performance goals. SEP is a heterogeneity-aware protocol implemented based on Low-Energy Adaptive Clustering Hierarchy (LEACH) protocol, designed to prolong the stability period of the network defined by the time interval before the death of the first SN. Nevertheless, adaptability in design is a scheme that has not been extensively applied in the formation of WSN election protocols. Adapt-𝑃 is a probabilistic model for adaptivity designed to evolve the probability of selecting a cluster-head based on the active status of the WSN, represented by the residual energy of and distances between SNs. However, the adaptive probability 𝑃adp formalized in Adapt-𝑃 is developed based on the remaining number of SNs 𝜁 and optimal clustering κmax, yet 𝑃adp does not implement the probabilistic ratios of energy and distance factors in the network. Furthermore, Adapt-𝑃 does not localize cluster-heads in the first round properly because of its reliance on distance computations defined in LEACH, that might result in uneven distribution of cluster-heads in the WSN area and hence might at some rounds yield inefficient consumption of energy. This paper utilizes 𝑘-means++ and Adapt-𝑃 to propose 𝑃c𝜅max-means++ clustering algorithm that better manages the distribution of cluster-heads and produces an enhanced performance. The algorithm employs an optimized cluster-head election probability 𝑃c developed based on energy-based 𝑃𝜂(𝑗,𝑖) and distance-based 𝑃𝜓(𝑗,𝑖) quality probabilities along with the adaptive probability 𝑃adp, utilizing the energy 𝜀 and distance optimality 𝑑opt factors. Furthermore, the algorithm utilizes the optimal clustering 𝜅max derived in Adapt-𝑃 to perform adaptive clustering through 𝜅max-means++. The proposed 𝑃c𝜅max-means++ is compared with the energy-based algorithm 𝑃𝜂𝜀𝜅max-means++ and distance-based 𝑃𝜓𝑑opt𝜅max-means++ algorithm, and has shown an optimized performance in term of residual energy and stability period of the network.

Geo-enabled election for efficient management of election processes in Du District of Plateau

One of the major reasons adduced by the military junta in the recent waves of coup-d’etat experienced in Africa and some West-Africa sub-region was floored election process hence the need for geo-enabled election process that is vivid. The aim of this article is to geo-enabled the entire election process by delineating and standardizing electoral Constituencies and Wards to a convenient size that is relative to the demographic characteristics. The fidelity of an election process in Nigeria can only be preserved and sustained by geo-enabling the entire process in phases. The recent past election trajectory in Nigeria revealed different election maleficent that defiled all election protocols and standards. The three key stakeholders involved in election processes may not be exonerated from these election improprieties especially the political pundits and the election management body (INEC), because of their varying interests; although there are some gullible electorates willing to mortgage their votes for a morsel of bread. The article demonstrated a proto-type geo-enabled election process of Du district (constituency) in Jos South LGA of Plateau State by using GIS and GPNAS to structure both spatial and attribute election data in order to delineate effectively constituency and ward boundaries and carry all stakeholders along. The result include Constituency map with a well defined boundary, roads linking ballot places; ward maps and table showing the geographic coordinates of ballot areas. The article has unveiled to all the stakeholders what to expect from the election umpire, navigate to ballot places and how to plan effectively before, during and after election.

Performance Evaluation of a Zone-based Three-level Heterogeneous Clustering Protocol for WSNs

This paper proposes a zone-based three-level heterogeneous clustering protocol (ZB-TLHCP) for heterogeneous WSNs. In ZB-TLHCP, the sensor field/region is divided into zones where super, advance, and normal nodes are deployed uniformly and randomly. The performance of the proposed ZB-TLHCP system is compared with that of zonal-stable election protocol (Z-SEP), distributed energy efficient clustering (DEEC), and threshold-based DEEC (TDEEC) protocol by varying the number of super and advance nodes, their energy levels for the fixed sensor field, and the total number of nodes. Matlab simulation results revealed that the proposed ZB-TLHCP solution performed better than Z-SEP, DEEC, and TDEEC protocols, as it increased the instability period, prolonged the network's lifetime, and achieved higher throughput values.

REERP: A Region-Based Energy-Efficient Routing Protocol for IoT Wireless Sensor Networks

An essential component of the Internet of Things (IoT) is wireless sensor networks (WSNs). Since individual sensor nodes are strongly power-constrained, several techniques are adopted to save power. By grouping nodes into clusters—thus reducing the transmission distance between sensor nodes and the base station (BS)—a clustering protocol can ensure energy preservation and increase the lifetime of the network. However, current clustering techniques have problems with the clustering structure that negatively impact their performance. Whenever routing protocols were implemented for a longer period of time, it was observed that they had a higher rate of energy consumption, a shorter period of stability, and fewer data transfers to the BS. In this paper, an improved region-based routing protocol (REERP) is developed for wireless sensor networks in the IoT is developed. It is based on (i) the addition of new nodes to the already formed clusters, (ii) the selection of the new head node based on the amount of residual energy, (iii) the setup of the multi-hop communication in all the regions of network, and (iv) the utilization of the energy hole reduction method. All of these tactics increase the useful life of the network. Performance has been evaluated against (1) a stable election protocol, (2) a gateway energy-aware routing protocol, and (3) a heterogeneous gateway energy-aware routing protocol, and using the metrics lifetime, energy consumption, number of dead nodes, and number of packets sent to the base station vs. number of packets acquired by the base station. The results of the proposed routing protocol have been found to outperform the state-of-the-art approaches considered.

Enhancement of Performance Metrics of Heterogeneous Wireless Camera Sensor Network with Functionalization of Extensive Zonal Stable Election Protocol using Threshold Amplification and Residual Energy

We report a new improved energy competent and optimized data packet flow protocol with Hierarchical Clustering utilized in Wireless camera Sensor Network.The existing Extensive Zonal Stable Election Protocol has been modified along with the threshold parameters amplification and residual energy. It incorporates dynamic hybrid method with finite number of Member Sensor nodes (MSN) in proximity with the base station share their data directly , while the rest of the farther nodes form a cluster for data transference using Cluster Head. The performance metrics accompanied by heterogeneity, longer network survival and better throughput have been improved. The network field was divided into 4 zones with a gateway for defined region 2, 3, and 4. The criterion for zone division remained on the energy status (residual) of the MSNs and distance from the BS and the formulated field characteristics in the simulation were kept unknown. The obtained results demonstrate that our proposed modified version of EZSE protocol considerably performs better than existing EZ-SEP, Z-SEP, SEP, LEACH, Mod-Leach protocols during entire stability timeframe. The notable achievement is also reported in throughput as the same is enhanced more than by ~ 39%, 43%, 49% ,56%, 53% while total packets communicated with base station has been increased more than by ~ 127%, 131%, 147%, 151%, 148% stability of the network is also improved more than by ~ 37%, 42%, 45%, 49%, 51% with the corresponding increase in the heterogeneity of networks.

Enhanced Fuzzy Logic Zone Stable Election Protocol for Cluster Head Election (E-FLZSEPFCH) and Multipath Routing in wireless sensor networks

A Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) is a system of sensor nodes that communicate with one another and with their surroundings. Wireless sensor nodes are now used as the foundation for the higher-level industrial internet of things applications. Any type of real-time Internet of Things (IoT) application, as long as the data is collected utilizing the device's sensors. WSN are severely limited in terms of energy. Routing is one of the most challenging components of WSNs. Unbalanced energy utilization during data packet routing operations is one of the most serious difficulties with WSNs. This issue must be considered because the energy levels of sensor nodes are limited. We used WSNs multipath routing to save energy, improve scalability, and balance load. Many investigations are being undertaken to increase sensor node energy efficiency and network lifetime. More attention must be devoted to the clustering and routing components of communication in order to conserve energy. Clustering, also known as node clustering is a network organizing approach which helps with energy efficiency, workload distribution, data collection, and a connected hierarchy. The network is made up of numerous sensor nodes that must connect with one another in order for data to reach its goal, and when messages are not sent to intermediary nodes, problems arise. With multipath routing, numerous paths between the source and destination can be created, improving the possibility of data reaching the target and providing additional copies via alternate paths. The proposed routing solution uses less energy and extends the life of the network while compared with well-known approaches i.e., LEACH, ECPF, CHEF, UCR, DFLC, ACAWT, and Gupta. According to the simulation results and overall analysis, the proposed technique is much better than all the previous approaches under different number of nodes and simulation time in terms of end-to-end time reduced by 17.09% to 68.13%, energy consumption reduced by 13.23% to 29.12%, packet loss rate declined by 16.33% to 82.38% and drop rate of alive sensor nodes are much better shows high network resilience.

Investigation and Analysis on Energy Efficient Stable Election Protocol (SEP) for WSN

Abstract: We study the impact of heterogeneity of nodes, in terms of their energy, in wireless sensor networks that are hierarchically clustered. In these networks some of the nodes become cluster heads, aggregate the data of their cluster members and transmit it to the sink. We assume that a percentage of the population of sensor nodes is equipped with additional energy resources—this is a source of heterogeneity which may result from the initial setting or as the operation of the network evolves. We propose SEP, a heterogeneous-aware protocol to prolong the time interval before the death of the first node (we refer to as stability period), which is crucial for many applications where the feedback from the sensor network must be reliable. SEP is based on weighted election probabilities of each node to become cluster head according to the remaining energy in each node. We show by simulation that SEP always prolongs the stability period compared to (and that the average throughput is greater than) the one obtained using current clustering protocols. We conclude by studying the sensitivity of our SEP protocol to heterogeneity parameters capturing energy imbalance in the network. We found that SEP yields longer stability region for higher values of extra energy brought by more powerful nodes. Sensor nodes usually have limited energy supply and they are impractical to recharge. How to balance traffic load in sensors in order to increase network lifetime is a very challenging research issue. Many clustering algorithms have been proposed recently for wireless sensor networks (WSNs). The use of mobile sinks has been shown to be an effective technique to enhance network performance features such as latency, energy efficiency, network lifetime, etc. In this paper, a modified Stable Election Protocol (SEP), which employs a mobile sink, has been proposed for WSNs with non-uniform node distribution. The decision of selecting cluster heads by the sink is based on the minimization of the associated additional energy and residual energy at each node. Besides, the cluster head selects the shortest path to reach the sink between the direct approach and the indirect approach with the use of the nearest cluster head. Simulation results demonstrate that our algorithm has better performance than traditional routing algorithms, such as LEACH and SEP.

Enhancing the lifetime and performance of WSNs in smart irrigation systems using cluster‐based selection protocols

AbstractThis paper presents a comparative analysis of cluster‐based selection protocols for wireless sensor networks (WSNs) in smart irrigation systems. The study evaluates the performance of stable election protocol (SEP)‐based protocols, including conventional SEP, zonal SEP (ZSEP), enhanced SEP (ESEP) and threshold‐sensitive SEP (TSEP), and distributed energy‐efficient clustering (DEEC)‐based protocols, including conventional DEEC, developed DEEC (DDEEC), enhanced DEEC (EDEEC) and threshold‐sensitive DEEC (TDEEC). Simulation results show that TSEP and ZSEP outperform other SEP‐based protocols in terms of network lifetime, stability period, number of dead nodes and throughput. EDEEC and TDEEC show superior performance compared to other DEEC‐based protocols. However, TDEEC and EDEEC have a lower performance in terms of packets sent to cluster heads (CHs) due to the three levels of energy heterogeneity, which reduce the average packets sent to CHs. Finally, a comparative analysis between the SEP‐based and DEEC‐based protocols is presented. The findings reveal that TSEP outperforms all other protocols in terms of the performance metrics examined in this paper, except for throughput, which is higher in the case of ZSEP. Overall, the proposed cluster‐based selection protocols improve the energy efficiency and lifetime of WSNs in smart irrigation systems, and the results demonstrate their effectiveness in supporting the performance of smart irrigation systems.

Energy aware optimized dynamic routing mechanism in wireless sensor networks

A trade-off between energy efficiency and optimized routing is massively recommended for transmission efficiency enhancement in wireless sensor networks (WSNs). Therefore, in this paper, graph-based energy optimized dynamic routing (GEODR) mechanism is introduced to set up a balance between energy consumption minimization and throughput enhancement using a dynamic and optimized routing mechanism in WSNs. A clustering scheme is employed based on graph theory, and cluster boundaries are formed using distance vectors. Cluster head (CH) selection is performed based on residual energy, the distance between CHs, and the mobility of the sink node. Each cluster is scattered with multiple tiny nodes, and event monitoring is performed. A model for graph-based dynamic routing to transmit data packets, cluster and cluster boundary formation, and optimization of routing problems is discussed. The performance efficiency of the proposed GEODR mechanism is determined by taking 100 sensor nodes, and 20 nodes are selected as CHs in a sensor network, and several other network parameters are also considered. A massive improvement in energy is observed by using sink node mobility. Experimental results are obtained using the proposed GEODR mechanism in terms of data packet transmission, alive nodes, dead nodes, and residual energy and compared against classical routing mechanisms such as low energy adaptive clustering hierarchy (LEACH) and stable election protocol (SEP).

Improving Smart Irrigation Systems through Energy Efficient Cluster-Head Selection in Heterogeneous WSNs

Introduction— Smart irrigation systems require reliable and energy-efficient communication between the sensors in a Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) and the control system. Objective— To address this challenge, this paper presents several cluster-based selection protocols, based on the Stable Election Protocol (SEP) and Distributed Energy-Efficient Clustering (DEEC). Methodology— The presented protocols divide the agriculture field into sub-fields to reduce energy consumption between far sensors and the Base Station (BS). Results— Comparison with traditional protocols using evaluation metrics such as network throughput, stability, instability period, and lifetime, shows that the presented protocols outperform in terms of all metrics. Conclusions— The results indicate the effectiveness of the proposed protocols in prolonging the network’s lifetime and improving energy efficiency in heterogeneous WSNs, thus supporting the performance of smart irrigation systems. Numerically, using the proposed protocols, the network lifetime increased by 23% compared to conventional SEP.