Egg Dipping Research Articles

Efficacy of plant-based products and nonconventional pesticides for the management of tropical bed bug.

Insecticide resistance is widespread in global bed bug populations. Both common bed bugs and tropical bed bugs are pyrethroid-resistant among most field populations. Plant-based products and nonconventional pesticides offer minimal-risk strategies for managing bed bug resistance, but this strategy has yet to be formally evaluated in Cimex hemipterus (F.) (Hemiptera: Cimicidae). Here, several commercial plant-based formulations (Cedarcide, EcoRaider (also known as EcoVenger), EcoSMART, and Bio-D), a novel product, Provecta, and a pyrethroid insecticide, Pesguard FG161 were tested against pyrethroid-susceptible and resistant strains of C. hemipterus using direct spray, residual exposure, and egg dipping assays. Direct spray treatments outperform residual applications against all tested bed bug strains. Cedarcide exhibits the highest consistency in eliminating bed bugs, followed by EcoRaider, EcoSMART, and Provecta that outperform Bio-D and Pesguard FG161. In comparison to Pesguard FG161, all plant-based insecticide products and Provecta showed higher efficacy against pyrethroid-resistant strains. Although effective, product efficacy varies in terms of speed. Cedarcide kills all bed bugs within 1 min after spraying; however, other products can take up to 9 days to achieve 100% mortality. The efficacy of all products was reduced when evaluated on fabric surface (42%-65% mortality). Cedarcide and EcoRaider reduced egg hatchability by 37%-73% and 47%-70%, respectively. This study suggests that certain plant-based insecticides and an unconventional insecticide can serve as alternative direct spray treatments for managing tropical bed bugs, though their residual effects are limited.

Ovicidal activity of spirotetramat and its effect on hatching, development and formation of Frankliniella occidentalis egg

Frankliniella occidentalis (Pergande) has become an important vegetable pest worldwide because of its economic damage to crop production. However, it is difficult to control due to its unique living habits. In this study, the eggs of F. occidentalis were used as the target to explore the ovicidal activity of spirotetramat on the thrips and its effect on hatching, development and formation. After the treatment of spirotetramat, the LC50 value descreased with increased egg age using egg dipping method, and showed the same trend as the leaf dipping method verified on living plants. Through ultra-depth-of-field microscopy, scanning electron microscopy and transmission electron microscopy, the egg shell and internal structures of F. occidentalis eggs were studied. Spirotetramat can destroy the egg shells of F. occidentalis, resulting in shrinkage of the egg surface, sunken pores, egg deformities, egg shell rupture and other phenomena. This allows spirotetramat to enter the egg and destroy the egg structure, making the egg internal structure flocculent, fuzzy and unevenly distributed, which affects embryonic development and causes the nymphs to die before hatching. Therefore, the prevention and control of F. occidentalis using spirotetramat before damage is caused to crops should have a better effect.

Neurotoxic and Teratogenic Effects of Enrofloxacin Against Newly Hatched Chicks Subjected to Omphalitis.

This study was aimed to investigate any possible neurotoxic signs and teratogenic anomalies that may result from pre incubation dipping of fertile eggs in Enrofloxacin concentrations as a preventive measurement against omphalitis. E. Coli sensitivity against Enrofloxacin was examined in a dose dependent manner by using 2, 4, 6, 8, and 10 µg/ml. Forty two non-infected newly hatched chicks at age of 5-7 days were divided into six groups of seven chicks each, subjected to behavioral tests namely; Open Field Test and Tonic Immobility Test. For Open Field Test results showed that the lowest latency period was recorded significantly in chicks whose eggs dipped in 10µg/ml of Enrofloxacin (6±0.78 sec.) in comparison to control group (32.43±1.52 sec.) while the highest latency period was recorded insignificantly in chicks whose eggs dipped in 2µg/ of Enrofloxacin (29±1.61 sec.). The highest number of lines crossed by both feet was recorded significantly in chicks whose eggs dipped in 10µg/ml of Enrofloxacin (31.43 ±2.7) in comparison to control group (12.43 ±1.02) while the lowest number of lines crossed by both feet was recorded insignificantly in chicks whose eggs dipped in 2µg/ml of Enrofloxacin (14 ±1.87). The highest number of jumps was recorded significantly in chicks whose eggs dipped in 10µg/ml of Enrofloxacin (8.85 ±0.3) in comparison to control group (1.14 ±1.0) while the lowest number of jumps was recorded insignificantly in chicks whose eggs dipped in 2µg/ml of Enrofloxacin (2 ±0.17). The highest number of defecation times was recorded significantly in chicks whose eggs dipped in 10µg/ml of Enrofloxacin (1.6 ±0.23) in comparison to control group (0.86 ±0.26) while the number of defecation times were insignificant in the rest of groups. Both of call and backing times in all groups were insignificant in comparing with control group. Results for Tonic Immobility Test showed that shortest time needed by the chick to upright itself and stand unaided was recorded significantly in chicks whose eggs dipped in 10µg/ml of Enrofloxacin (1 sec. ±0.1) in comparing with control group (2 sec. ±0.11) while the longest time needed by the chick to upright itself and stand unaided was recorded insignificantly in chicks whose eggs dipped in 2µg/ml of Enrofloxacin (1.8 sec. ±0.1). Pre-incubation dipping of fertile eggs in Enrofloxacin concentrations showed insignificant changes in body weight, body length, leg length, wing length and beaker length. We concluded that using low concentrations of of Enrofloxacin and Ciprofloxacin to dip eggs in has resulted in minimized neurotoxic and teratotgenic effects.

Transmission and pathogenicity of Gallibacterium anatis and Escherichia coli in embryonated eggs

In laying hens, Escherichia coli (E. coli) and Gallibacterium anatis (G. anatis) are considered the two major pathogens causing reproductive tract disorders, either as single infections or as co-infections. Vertical transmission has been confirmed for E. coli but remains to be clearly demonstrated for G. anatis. The aim of the present study was to investigate the ability of both G. anatis and E. coli at eggshell transmission using an embryonated egg dipping model, and to investigate the possible interaction between the two organisms in an embryonated egg injection model. Embryonated eggs were dipped into brain heart infusion broth containing 108 CFU/ml either of G. anatis 12656-12 liver, E. coli ST95 or E. coli ST141, respectively. E. coli ST95 and ST141 were re-isolated from the interior egg contents in 60% (12/20) and 85% (17/20) of the eggs, respectively, while G. anatis 12656-12 was only re-isolated from the interior egg contents in 6.7% (3/45) eggs. Eggs were injected with 10–1000 CFU of either G. anatis 12656-12, E. coli ST95 or ST141 into the allantoic cavity. As few as 10 CFU of G. anatis 12656-12 resulted in 100% mortality within 24 h post injection whereas the E. coli injected embryos all died at 48 h post injection. Significant difference in CFU counts were observed for G. anatis when compared G. anatis injection group with either of the two G. anatis – E. coli co-injection groups. Sixteen hours post injection, a significant difference in embryo mortality could be observed when comparing co-injected embryonated eggs (G. anatis and E. coli) and single-injected (G. anatis or E. coli) embryonated eggs.In conclusion, bacterial transmission via the eggshell was demonstrated for both G. anatis and E. coli although at different magnitudes. The embryonated egg injection model revealed that G. anatis in particular was highly pathogenic when exposed directly to the developing embryo.

Arthropathic and amyloidogenic Enterococcus faecalis infections in brown layers: A study on infection routes

Intravenous, intra-articular and intraperitoneal inoculation of 6-week-old brown-layer pullets with an arthropathic and amyloidogenic strain of Enterococcus faecalis resulted in amyloid arthropathy, while intramuscular, oral and intratracheal inoculation did not. Oral inoculation of 1-day-old chickens did not cause any pathology. However, intramuscular inoculation with 106 colony forming units resulted in severe growth retardation and arthritis in 60% of the birds, and amyloid arthropathy in approximately 40%. In egg transmission studies, neither egg dipping nor inoculation of the air chamber with E. faecalis reproduced the condition, although a few chicks became septicaemic. Yolk sac inoculation of 6-day-old embryos caused embryonic death within 2 days. In contrast, egg albumen inoculation with E. faecalis led to arthritis in one of six of the progeny, indicating the possibility that vertical transmission of E. faecalis by the oviductal route could lead to arthritis. The presence of antibodies to E. faecalis was confirmed by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay in 14/15 of experimental birds that had developed arthritis.

Egg Dipping in Hydrogen Peroxide Solution to Eliminate Salmonella typhimurium from Eggshell Membranes

The effectiveness of egg dipping in a 6% hydrogen peroxide solution to eliminate Salmonella typhimurium from eggshell membranes was evaluated. The first step was to assess the water uptake from broiler hatching eggs dipped in tap water once or twice using a positive-pressure differential method in order to determine the best method to use in the disinfection trials. Double dipping increased water uptake by 86% more than single dipping. Dipping S. typhimurium-contaminated eggs twice in a 6% hydrogen peroxide solution reduced the average number of organisms in eggshell membranes by 95% and the number of S. typhimurium-positive eggs by 55% compared with the infected untreated group. Dipping the eggs in a 6% hydrogen peroxide solution did not adversely affect hatchability.

Preincubation Dipping of Turkey Eggs – Does It Affect Eggshell Conductance?

We tested the assumption that preincubation egg dipping in tylosin tartrate plus RCL (disinfectant) solution may affect eggshell gas conductance. This was done by measuring eggshell water vapor diffusive conductance of fertile hatching turkey eggs before and after dipping in: 1) distilled water, 2) tylosin tartrate, 3) RCL, 4) tylosin tartrate and RCL, 5) dry vacuum. A slight, but significant, increase in eggshell conductance was found in all treatments and controls; difference was significant only between all experimental and control groups. This indicates that functional eggshell properties associated with water loss and gas exchange are only marginally affected by the treatment per se and change slightly with age. Both dipping and age changes are not meaningful. No correlation was found between the amounts of solution gained in dipping and egg mass or eggshell conductance.

The Effect of Mycoplasma meleagridis Infection and Egg Dipping on the Weight-Gain Performance of Turkey Poults

Turkey poults were observed throughout their first 7 weeks of life to evaluate the effects of embryonic infection with Mycoplasma meleagridis (MM) and the effects of a control measure, egg dipping with tylosin and gentamycin. Fifty-thousand poults from four sister flocks were divided among eight groups according to MM-infection status [MM (+) or MM (-)] , sex, and egg-dipping status (dipped or nondipped). These birds were raised under natural field conditions in the Central Valley of California. The MM (+) poults had significantly (P less than 0.05) greater weights during the first part of the trial and, although usually not significantly (P greater than 0.05), consistently during the later part.

Studies on Egg Disinfection

Various concentrations of alkyldimethylbenzyl ammonium chloride (QAC), Na2CO3, and ethylenediaminetetracetic acid (EDTA) were tested for antimicrobial activity singly and in combination against Escherichia coli, Arizona hinshawii, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Bactericidal activity of the reagents were evaluated in embryonating eggs, trypticase soy broth, and a medium containing lecithin. Toxicity of the chemicals was assayed in embryonating eggs. An appraisal was made of an egg-washing solution composed of 250 ppm QAC, 100 ppm Na2CO3, and 10 and 100 ppm EDTA. The mixture was effective and nontoxic for this purpose. All egg treatments had an adverse effect on fertility and hatchability. Using the temperature differential procedure in egg dipping, the disinfectant mixture was relatively nontoxic if 10 ppm EDTA was used with 3000 ppm tylosin tartrate. One hundred parts per million of the chelator in the dip solution caused excessive embryo mortality due to synergistic toxicity with the antibiotic.The germicidal action of the QAC solution was markedly increased with Na2 CO3. Ten parts per million EDTA did not improve the biocidal effect of QAC solutions in distilled water but increased bactericidal activity in tap water that contained 16 ppm Ca and 22 ppm Mg.

Protection of Day-Old Poults against Arizona hinshawii Challenge by Preincubation Streptomycin Egg Treatment

Poults were protected against challenge with Arizona hinshawii 7:1,7,8 inoculated into the yolk sac 30 hours post-hatching by preincubation streptomycin treatment of turkey eggs, administered by temperature-differential egg dipping in a solution composed of 250 ppm of a quaternary ammonium compound, 10 ppm of ethylenediaminetraacetate and streptomycin at 9 mg per ml. Mortalities at 17 hours and 22 days postchallenge were respectively 8% and 44% in poults from treated eggs vs 47% and 93% from untreated eggs. Liver isolation rates at 17 hours and 22 days postchallenge were respectively 0% and 16% in poults from treated eggs, vs 71% and 80% from untreated eggs.

Preincubation Dipping of Turkey Hatching Eggs I. Effect of Shell Treatment on Amount and Variability of Fluid Intake

Two techniques for egg-shell treatment were evaluated for their effects on the quantity and variability of the fluid absorbed by turkey hatching eggs subjected to the temperature-differential method of egg dipping. The use of pin or drill to pierce a uniform hole through the shell and membrane(s) on the large end of each egg caused a significant increase in the quantity of dip solution absorbed. Variability in fluid uptake by the eggs also was reduced significantly. Utilization of dilute acid to remove cuticle completely from the whole egg surface or partially from either end also had similar effects. The techniques described also permit and effective dipping procedure that does not require the preheating step.

Studies on the Egg Dipping of Tylosin by the Pressure Differential Method

Preventive effects of dipping with tylosin against egg transmission of avian mycoplasmosis and the antibiotic levels in eggs and chicks after dipping were studied by the pressure differential method.The results were as follows:1. There were significant differences in weight gain of eggs after dipping between the ages of embryonated eggs, applied reduced pressures or individual farms, but not between the duration of dipping or antibiotic concentration applied. The antibiotic levels in egg increased with the duration of egg storage and antibiotic concentration.2. Anti-mycoplasmal effect of tylosin at 2, 500ppm in the experimentally inoculated eggs was apparently noted. The effect was not influenced by the age of embryonated eggs, applied reduced pressure and duration under atmospheric pressure. However, Mycoplasma gallisepticum was isolated in one of the 15 eggs which had been treated with tylosin at 156.8 to 1, 250ppm.3. Though hatchability at 2, 500ppm tylosin was not affected at all by a negative pressure over than 300mmHg and did not hatch lower 30mmHg.4. Tylosin appeared in albumin in a few minutes and in yolk 2 days after dipping. It remained in 3-day-old chicks from dipped eggs. However, the 4-day-old chicks were infected by the inoculation of Mycoplasma gallisepticum.From these results, it is considered that dipping with tylosin by the pressure differential method was very effective for the prevention of egg etansmission of avian respiratory mycoplasmosis. However, the effect may be variable according to the eggs used.

Antibiotic-Disinfection Compatibility Studies in Solution Used for Dipping Turkey Hatching Eggs

A great number of turkey hatcheries are using tylosin tartrate in a dipping procedure to control egg transmitted Mycoplasma sp. (PPLO), primarily Mycoplasma meleagridis. A quaternary ammonium compound is commonly used as a sanitizer and solution preservative. A few hatcheries are including neomycin sulfate into egg dipping solutions with the hope of reducing the incidence of Gram-negative organisms which may be in or on hatching eggs. This paper presents evidence that neomycin is incompatible with the quaternary preservative.

Gentamicin Concentrations in Turkey Eggs and in Tissues of Progeny Following Egg Dipping

SUMMARY Fertile turkey eggs were dipped in aqueous solutions of gentamicin sulfate by temperature-differential (TD) and pressure-differential (PD) methods and were assayed individually with and without shell. With dipping in 500 ppm gentamicin solutions, gentamicin concentrations averaged 1.5 ,ug per ml of content (range 0.4-2.7 Mg) by the TD method, and 1.2 ,ug (range 0.4-2.7 ,g) by the PD method. Variation in levels in individual eggs was less in PD than in TD eggs. Absorption of gentamicin appeared less when quaternary ammonium was present.

Tylosin Tartrate Absorption of Turkey and Chicken Eggs Dipped Using Pressure and Temperature Differentials

DIPPING turkey and chicken eggs in antibiotic solutions for the control of Mycoplasma infections has been widely investigated. The most common method was the temperature differential (TD) method, which consists of the dipping of prewarmed eggs in a cold solution of antibiotics (Chalquest and Fabricant, 1959; Goldhaft, 1961; Levine and Fabricant, 1962; Olson et al., 1962; Alls et al., 1963; Stuart and Bruins, 1963; Hall et al., 1963; Yoder and Hofstad, 1965; Kumar et al., 1966; and Mohamed and Bohl, 1969). The use of pressure differential (PD) to introduce antibiotics into the chicken egg was reported by Alls et al. (1963). A pressure cooker or an egg-traying machine connected with a vacuum pump were used to reduce pressure inside the eggs which were immersed in the antibiotic solution. This method has been used in the Netherlands to control Mycoplasma infections (Voeten, 1968).Many reports (Chalquest and Fabricant, 1959; Goldhaft, 1961;…

Studies on the Control of Mycoplasma meleagridis in Turkeys

SUMMARY Procedures used to establish an SPF turkey flock are described. Male and female turkeys free of reproductive tract infection but carrying an upper respiratory tract infection of M. meleagridis produced poults free of M. meleagridis. The progeny of these birds were used to establish an SPF turkey flock. Two generations of SPF turkeys were raised free of Mycoplasma or Salmonella as could be detected by our diagnostic procedures. Dipping turkey eggs in tylosin proved valuable in reducing the incidence of airsacculitis and Mycoplasma infection in day-old poults. Egg dipping, when combined with the serologic testing of poults hatching from dipped eggs, might be a practical approach to establishing turkey flocks free of M. melea

Sterility Induced in Japanese Quail by Spray Treatment of Eggs with Mestranol

Treatment of eggs with the steroid mestranol (3-Methoxy-17a-ethynylestra-1,3,5(10)-trien17pi-ol) as a spray on eggs is a potential avian chemosterilization procedure. Eggs of Japanese quail (Coturnix coturnix) were treated topically at 0, 6, or 12 days of incubation with a 0.005-ml drop of fuel oil containing 2.5, 5, or 10 ,ug of mestranol, or before incubation with a 0.005-ml fuel oil spray containing about 5 ,ug of mestranol. Controls for each treatment were treated with fuel oil only. Quail hatched from mestranol-treated eggs were irreversibly sterile and sometimes anatomically intersexual. Birds from treated eggs sometimes had significantly (P < 0.005) heavier ovaries and frequently had smaller oviducts and cloacal glands than the controls. When high levels of mestranol were given early in incubation, there was also higher embryo and chick mortality. Females had higher mortality and lower fecundity than males. Fecundity data, in conjunction with weight data and the histology of secretory tissue, suggest permanent changes in the hypothalmic centers of treated birds. Wild birds, like insects and mammals, may conflict with man's economy and welfare. There are several bird populations that are classified as being a nuisance. Control of some nuisance insect populations is more effective when a sterilization program, rather than induced mortality, is initiated and this method of control might be applicable for nuisance avian populations (Knipling 1964, 1968:7-40). The objective of this research was to test the steroid mestranol (3-Methoxy-17a-ethynylestra-1,3, 5(10)-trien-173-ol), a potential avian chemosterilant, to determine its effect on avian fecundity in controlled experiments using a very prolific pilot species, the Japanese quail. In our experimentation, application of mestranol to eggs in drop form or as a spray is a modification of dipping and injecting procedures used by other workers in studies of sex reversal, bursectomy, and 1 This is a contribution of the Massachusetts Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit (supported by the U. S. Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife, the Massachusetts Division of Fisheries and Game, the University of Massachusetts, and the Wildlife Management Institute) and the Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment Station. treatment of eggs with antibiotics. Snedecor (1949) presented original results and reviewed other work on the development of chick embryos injected with sex hormones. He reported varying degrees of sex reversal following the use of several estrogenic steroids injected at different dose levels into eggs. Following the claims presented in a patent by Seltzer (1956) involving the dipping of eggs into estrogenic solutions, additional experiments with chick sex reversal were conducted (Van Tienhoven 1957, Mellen 1957, Pincus and Hopkins 1958, Kondo 1959, and Pincus and Erickson 1962). These investigators found changes in both the primary and secondary sex tissue of birds hatched from treated eggs with some birds showing an alteration in reproductive performance. We are grateful to Drs. D. E. Davis, Department of Zoology, North Carolina State University, Raleigh; R. I. Dorfman, Syntex Research, Palo Alto, California; E. F. Knipling, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, Maryland; and J. G. Snedecor, Department of Zoology, University of Massachusetts, Amherst; for their advice and encouragement during this

A Method of “Controlling Sex” by Dipping of Eggs in Hormone Solutions

ABSTRACT SELTZER (1956), in a U. S. Patent, stated that dipping of eggs in hormone solutions enabled him to control the sex of the hatched chicks. The sex of the chicks was determined by an unspecified “physical examination.” He also stated, “ . . . female chicks derived from estrogenically influenced eggs, incubated according to my invention have been raised to maturity and found to be normal layers of normal eggs.” This statement is ambiguous because it leaves in doubt whether it refers to genetic males or genetic females. Injection of estrogen into fertile eggs before sex differentiation is known to affect embryonic development of the reproductive tract of male and female embryos. This subject has been reviewed by Domm (1939 Domm (1955), Witschi (1939), Benoit (1950), and Burns (1955). However, the laying of eggs by genetic males, although not specifically stated but implied in the quoted sentence above, would be contrary . . .