Efficient Wastewater Treatment Research Articles

Self-enhanced photoelectrocatalytic removal of Ni-organic complex and Ni recovery by the in-situ forming anodic Ni deposit: P-n junction-driven photocatalytic oxidation and chemical oxidation

The aim of this study was to propose a novel strategy for self-enhanced Ni-organic complex decomplexation and simultaneous Ni recovery based on photoanodic Ni deposition using photoelectrocatalytic (PEC) system. Compared to the conventional PEC process, the deposition of Ni2+ on TiO2 nanorod arrays photoanode led to a 30 % increase in decomplexation efficiency for Ni-ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (Ni-EDTA). The Ni-EDTA removal rate reached 81.0 ± 0.9 %, and the Ni recovery rate achieved 58.2 ± 0.1 % under a bicarbonate buffer condition at pH 8.5 and a current density of 0.5 mA/cm2. The anodic high-valent Ni deposit can mediate chemical oxidation of Ni-EDTA in the PEC process, which has significant potential for deep mineralization of Ni-EDTA. The formation of Ni-deposited TiO2 film significantly improved PEC activity of photoanode, as revealed by the facilitated interfacial charge transfer, suppressed charge recombination, and improved light harvesting capacity. Moreover, the photocatalytic film that exhibited p-n heterojunction characteristics associated with the accelerated electron-hole pair separation and downward shift in energy bands of TiO2, stimulated ‧OH generation during PEC process, playing a pivotal role in Ni-EDTA decomplexation. Our results highlight the potential of using anodic Ni deposition for the efficient PEC treatment of plating wastewater containing Ni-organic complex.

Enhanced hydrolytic acidification with Zero-Valent Iron for efficient treatment of comprehensive wastewater from industrial parks: mechanistic insights and toxicity reduction

In this study, a laboratory-scale zero-valent iron (ZVI)-enhanced hydrolytic acidification system was established to treat the comprehensive wastewater from Nanjing Jiangbei New Material Science Technology Park. Results indicated that the ZVI-enhanced hydrolytic acidification system achieved a maximum COD removal efficiency of 95.0%, surpassing the performance of the system without ZVI by 12.2%. Microbial community analysis revealed the enrichment of electrogenic bacterium Bacteroidetes_vadinHA17 and typical hydrogenotrophic methanogen Methanobacterium due to ZVI addition. High-throughput sequencing combined with PICRUSt2 analysis demonstrated acetate production was promoted, and butyrate and propionate production was inhibited. Additionally, Oxygen Uptake Rate-based toxicity assays revealed the hydrolytic acidification system transitioned the wastewater of three enterprises from low toxicity to non-toxic status and two from high to low toxicity. While the ZVI-enhanced hydrolytic acidification system successfully reduced the toxicity of all highly and low toxic wastewaters to non-toxic levels.

Biochar-bacteria coupling system enhanced the bioremediation of phenol wastewater-based on life cycle assessment and environmental safety analysis

The efficient treatment of phenol wastewater is of great necessity since it induces serious pollution of water and soil ecosystems. Using biochar-immobilized functional microorganisms can innovatively and sustainably deal with the existing problem. In this study, we utilized response surface methodology (RSM) combined with life cycle assessment (LCA) to improve phenol biodegradation rate through a novel separated alkali-resistant and thermophilic strain Bacillus halotolerans ACY. Bioinformatic analysis revealed the genetic foundation of ACY to adapt to harsh environments. The characteristics of pig manure biochar (PMB) produced at varying pyrolysis temperatures (300-700 ℃) and adsorption experiment were investigated, immobilization of the phenol-degrading ACY on PMB600 under alkaline and high pollution load promoted phenol removal and extreme environment resistance, and the phenol removal rate reached 99.5% in 7d in actual phenol wastewater, which increased compared with those achieved by PMB (50.6%) and free bacteria (80.5%) alone. Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) and Fourier transform infrared spectrometry (FTIR) observations indicated the successful bacterial immobilization on PMB600. Reusability and economic cost study further demonstrated PMB600 as an excellent carrier for wastewater treatment. LC-MS, toxicology and carbon footprint analyses demonstrated that bacterial metabolism exerted synergy with adsorption for phenol removal, while biodegradation exerted the predominant impact on the immobilized bacterial system. This study provides an eco-friendly and effective approach to treat phenol wastewater.

Radiant Remedies – Maximizing Wastewater Treatment Efficiency with Optimized Photo-Fenton Techniques

Radiant Remedies – Maximizing Wastewater Treatment Efficiency with Optimized Photo-Fenton Techniques

Zn-MIL53(Fe) as an electro-Fenton catalyst: Application in organic pollutant degradation and pathogen inactivation

In this study, the potential of a bimetallic Metal-Organic Framework Zn-MIL53(Fe) for electro-Fenton catalysis was evaluated. After the material characterisation, its catalytic activity was validated in Fenton reaction to degrade a model organic pollutant: Rhodamine B. After that, the evaluation of Zn-MIL53(Fe) as electro-Fenton catalyst was performed and improved outcomes were reached by electro-Fenton regarding anodic oxidation. Then, electro-Fenton treatment optimisation was carried out using response surface methodology assays considering different catalyst dosages (7.2–43.2 mg), current intensities (5–45 mA) and treatment time (30–90 min) in a volume of 0.1 L. Under optimal conditions, a degradation rate over 90 % for Fluoxetine and Sulfamethoxazole in synthetic wastewater was achieved within 90 min, using graphite sheet as anode and nickel foam as cathode (25 mA), with a catalyst dosage of 43.2 mg in a volume of 0.1 L. Additionally, its application in the pathogen inactivation was evaluated using different gram-negative and gram-positive bacteria. Complete eliminations of both types of bacteria were reached in 5 min using the optimal conditions. In the end, Zn-MIL53(Fe) was proven as a reusable material, capable of performing 3 complete cycles of electro-Fenton treatment for both types of pollutants bacteria and pharmaceuticals, which makes it a promising candidate for more efficient wastewater treatment applications which involve the Fenton reaction.

Exploiting bulk adsorption sites in composite particles via pore engineering for efficient wastewater treatment

Composite particles composed of raw minerals and polymers are promising adsorbents for wastewater treatment because they are based on readily available resources and can be easily separated from water. However, the highly crosslinked molecular networks make the internal structures inaccessible, significantly restricting their adsorption capacity. This work reports the development of a porous polyvinyl formal–Linze palygorskite composite fabricated via a polyvinyl acetal reaction using inorganic salts as porogens. The resulting pore structure provides well-developed molecule/ion-transfer paths, enabling the efficient utilization of active sites in the bulk phase and facilitating complete internal adsorption. The optimal sample, P-PVFM-LZ, which was prepared with 5% NaCl by weight relative to Linze palygorskite and subsequently washed to remove the NaCl porogen, exhibited a distinct pore structure with a 44.0% higher specific surface area and 8.6% higher porosity than the composite prepared without NaCl (PVFM-LZ). Correspondingly, the adsorption capacities of P-PVFM-LZ for methylene blue, crystal violet, Pb2+, Ni2+, ciprofloxacin, and tetracycline hydrochloride are enhanced by 140.61%, 76.71%, 50.00%, 154.86%, 86.77%, and 75.49%, respectively, compared to PVFM-LZ. Furthermore, P-PVFM-LZ demonstrates desirable regenerative adsorption performance, even after six adsorption–desorption cycles. The proposed pore-engineering strategy is considered versatile for designing and fabricating raw-mineral composite adsorbents for efficient wastewater treatment.

Exploration of two novel highly efficient polymer composite materials based on 3-chloropropyltriethoxysilane-grafted waste para-aramid functionalized by organo-phosphonic acid/L-proline and their excellent adsorption performance for gold ions

Two novel highly efficient polymer composite adsorbents based on 3-chloropropyltriethoxysilane-grafted waste para-aramid (PPTA-CP-AT and PPTA-CP-L, PPTA=poly-p-phenylene terephthamide; CP = 3-chloropropyltriethoxysilane; AT=amino trimethylene phosphonic acid; L=L-proline) have been successfully prepared and characterized. The new adsorbents were synthesized by functionalizing 3-chloropropyltriethoxysilane-grafted waste para-aramid with amino trimethylene phosphonic acid and L-proline, respectively. They have been employed to adsorb gold ions from aqueous solution, and the relevant adsorption behaviors have been investigated in detail. The adsorption isotherms of PPTA-CP-AT and PPTA-CP-L were consistent with the Langmuir isotherm model, and the corresponding kinetics could be best described by the pseudo-second-order kinetic model. In particular, the adsorption capacity of PPTA-CP-L was much higher than the values reported in the literature. In addition, the effect of pH on the gold ions adsorption and the thermodynamic parameters of the adsorption procedure were assessed. The research results indicated that PPTA-CP-AT and PPTA-CP-L are two novel adsorbents with high efficiency in wastewater treatment and recovery of precious gold. In particular PPTA-CP-L, which was obtained through facile esterification synthesis at low temperature, showed an excellent adsorption performance and could be used as potentially excellent adsorbent for gold uptake.

Upcycling Red Mud into a Stable Electro-Fenton Catalyst via Ingenious Sn Doping for Efficient Antibiotic Wastewater Treatment

Upcycling Red Mud into a Stable Electro-Fenton Catalyst via Ingenious Sn Doping for Efficient Antibiotic Wastewater Treatment

Forward Osmosis Membranes Modified with Lignosulfonate Coated ZnO Nanoparticles for Efficient Heavy Metal Wastewater Treatment

Forward Osmosis Membranes Modified with Lignosulfonate Coated ZnO Nanoparticles for Efficient Heavy Metal Wastewater Treatment

Machine Learning Methods for the Prediction of Wastewater Treatment Efficiency and Anomaly Classification with Lack of Historical Data

This study examines an algorithm for collecting and analyzing data from wastewater treatment facilities, aimed at addressing regression tasks for predicting the quality of treated wastewater and classification tasks for preventing emergency situations, specifically filamentous bulking of activated sludge. The feasibility of using data obtained under laboratory conditions and simulating the technological process as a training dataset is explored. A small dataset collected from actual wastewater treatment plants is considered as the test dataset. For both regression and classification tasks, the best results were achieved using gradient-boosting models from the CatBoost family, yielding metrics of SMAPE = 9.1 and ROC-AUC = 1.0. A set of the most important predictors for modeling was selected for each of the target features.

Enhanced removal of methyl orange and malachite green using mesoporous TO@CTAB nanocomposite: Synthesis, characterization, optimization and real wastewater treatment efficiency.

This study explores the synthesis of a novel titanium oxide-cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (TO@CTAB) nanocomposite for the effective removal of malachite green (MG) and methyl orange (MO) dyes. The optimization of the nanocomposite's performance was carried out using response surface methodology (RSM). The adsorption characteristics were further evaluated through isotherm models, kinetic studies and thermodynamic analyses. The mesoporous nature of TO@CTAB was confirmed through BET analysis, revealing a pore diameter of 4.625nm. The crystalline size of TO@CTAB is 54.78nm, and its crystalline index is 70.84%. The optimal operating conditions were established based on the results obtained from the ANOVA. The Langmuir isotherm model demonstrates superior adsorption performance compared to the Freundlich isotherm model, with adsorption efficiencies of 317.46mg/g for MO and 306.748mg/g for MG. The pseudo-second-order model, with an R2 value of 0.998 and 0.997 for MO and MG, respectively, provides a more accurate and reliable explanation of the adsorption process compared to the pseudo-first-order model. Furthermore, the high reusability and minimal deterioration of TO@CTAB were observed for up to 5 cycles. The analysis of the adsorption mechanism indicates that the adsorption of MG and MO occurs through H-bonding, electrostatic and π-π interactions. A comprehensive cost analysis of the process was conducted to evaluate the cost-effectiveness; total expenditure incurred during the process was determined to be within acceptable limits. TO@CTAB was assessed using real wastewater samples, demonstrating a decolourization efficiency of 82%. Additionally, it resulted in a reduction of COD, BOD, TSS and TDS.

Analysis of the regulation mechanism for salt-tolerant anammox process: process performance and metabolic insights

ABSTRACT : In this study, the start-up and microbial domestication of a salt-tolerant functional anammox system was investigated by gradually increasing the salinity level in a stabilized anammox system in the laboratory. After 44 days of stable operation, the salt-tolerant system was successfully activated, at which time the salinity of the influent water was 3 g/L, and the maximum removal efficiency of ammonia nitrogen and nitrite nitrogen in the system reached 94.18% and 96.66%, respectively, and then the ammonia nitrogen and nitrite nitrogen removal efficiency were stabilized at 88.17% and 96.48% after the enrichment domestication for 89 days. The system was operated in the salinity of 10 g/L, with the concentration of each nitrogen compound measured at the same time. The ammonia nitrogen removal efficiency decreased to 59.93% at a salinity of 10 g/L, which had a significant impact on the system. High-throughput sequencing revealed that the system was enriched with a large number of Chloroflexi, the relative abundance of which increased from 19.46% to 52.33%, and the genus of AnAOB was transformed from Candidatus Brocadia to Candidatus Kuenenia, Candidatus Kuenenia, with a percentage of 4.78%. The system successfully achieved the simultaneous removal of ammonia nitrogen and nitrite nitrogen under salinity stress, which to a certain extent indicated that AnAOB could achieve the initiation and enrichment domestication under salinity conditions, and could provide a basis for the efficient and low-consumption treatment of high salinity nitrogen-containing wastewater.

Bioenhancement mechanism of PVA-SA immobilized composite strains Alishewanella fetalis and Exiguobacterium profundum in pyridine degradation

Coal chemical wastewater (CCW) represents a type of recalcitrant organic wastewater characterized by its intricate composition and high concentration of pollutants, posing a severe threat to global aquatic environments and public health. This study focuses on the degradation of pyridine, a notoriously persistent organic pollutant in CCW, through the identification and application of two highly efficient pyridine-degrading bacterial strains: Alishewanella fetalis (Al-f3) and Exiguobacterium profundum (Ex-p). These strains were immobilized using a polyvinyl alcohol-sodium alginate (PVA-SA) matrix to investigate their bioaugmentation mechanisms in the pyridine degradation process. The findings indicate that strains Al-f3 and Ex-p achieved degradation rates of 95.94 % and 97.83 %, respectively, for an initial pyridine concentration of 200 mg/L at 96 hours. When strains Al-f3 and Ex-p were mixed in equal proportions and immobilized within PVA/SA beads, a degradation rate of 81.06 % was reached within 48 hours, with the efficiency increasing significantly by 96 hours. This enhancement is attributed primarily to the marked increase in enzymatic activity post-immobilization, achieving 17.13 μmol/mg·min, and the elevated secretion of extracellular proteins and polysaccharides, measured at 3.47 mg/L and 1.03 mg/L respectively within 48 hours. Notably, in the immobilized mixed culture system, the total organic carbon (TOC) was reduced to a mere 0.03 mg/L within 72 hours, with a removal rate of 92.31 %. These outcomes not only demonstrate the bioaugmentation role of the immobilized mixed strains in degrading pyridine but also offer novel solutions for the biodegradation of other organic contaminants in CCW, thereby enhancing the treatment efficiency of such wastewater. Given their large specific surface area and cost-effectiveness, PVA/SA immobilization matrices serve as efficient biocarriers in the biodegradation processes for treating CCW. This research provides innovative strategies and methods for the biotreatment of recalcitrant industrial wastewater.

Biological Wastewater Treatment Using Higher Aquatic Plants

This article presents the results of research on the biological treatment of various industrial and domestic wastewater using higher aquatic plants. The experiments examined the possibility of biological treatment of mining wastewater on a semi-industrial scale using <i>Eichhornia crassipes </i>Solms, <i>Pistia stratiotes</i> L. <i>Azolla</i> <i>caroliniana </i>and <i>Lemna minor </i>and their features in biological treatment are identified. Eichhornia and pistia plants are important because they show high efficiency in wastewater treatment due to their high adsorption properties, with frequent renewal of biomass in ponds, the phytoremediation capacity of higher aquatic plants is 51% per day due to the adsorption properties of plants, based on calculations, it is possible to propose cleaning pools with a volume of 1000 cubic meters of water for 5 days, through the renewal of plant culture every 1-3 days. The use of purification methods in this way recommends the construction of additional structures. In this case, depending on the volume of wastewater from the plant, it is necessary to build additional bioponds, create a water transfer system, and also build additional bioponds for the purpose of growing biomass or increasing plants. Only then can the biological purification method we recommend be used on an industrial scale or at an industrial enterprise to purify wastewater in an environmentally safe and cost-effective manner.

Adsorption-catalytic synergistic Fenton degradation of potassium butyl xanthate in flotation tailing wastewater by renewable iron-loaded sludge: Performance, kinetics and mechanism

The renewable iron-loaded residual sludge heterogeneous catalyst (RLS-Fe) was prepared by impregnation-pyrolysis method and applied to the heterogeneous Fenton for the degradation of potassium butyl xanthate (BX-K) in flotation tailing wastewater. The rich pore structure and uniformly distributed iron oxides endowed the catalyst with excellent adsorption and catalytic capabilities. RLS-Fe exhibited maximum adsorption capacity of 86.47 mg/g, with surface concentration (Cs) of 2.88 mg/cm2 and surface coverage (θ) exceeding 80 %. The interaction of monolayer-adsorbed BX-K with catalytically generated ·OH facilitated the Fenton reaction and enhanced the adsorption process, making the degradation and mineralization of BX-K more efficient, with the removal rate of 99.82 % in 80 min. Through the synergistic effects of adsorption and catalytic processes, H2O2 was efficiently decomposed and effectively utilized. The ·OH generated in the initial stage rapidly degraded the adsorbed BX-K and released the adsorption sites, while the ·O2– produced subsequently targeted the catalytic sites and restored their activity. The Langmuir-Hinshelwood (L-H) kinetic model confirmed that the mutual promotion of adsorption and catalysis elevated the apparent reaction rate constant and accelerated the mineralization of BX-K. Additionally, density functional theory (DFT), Fukui indices and Gibbs free energy calculations were employed to analyze the intermediates and degradation pathways of BX-K. The −C=S– bond was identified as the primary target for ·OH attack. The RLS-Fe catalyst prepared in this study presented excellent stability and renewability, offering new insights for the streamlined preparation of renewable catalysts and efficient treatment of tailings wastewater.

Recycling some byproducts for fabrication of green cement with good mechanical strength and high efficiency for wastewater treatment

This research aims to produce green cement, as an alternative to traditional cement, with outstanding performance. Five alkali-activated cement pastes were fabricated based on NaOH-activation of slag (GGBFS), bypass (B), and/or silica fume (S). Codes of five pastes are C, C-20B, C-30B, C-10B10S, and C-20B10S, as C is the control paste containing 100% slag. The compressive strength of the fabricated pastes was measured at different curing regimes: Conventional curing for 3 months and autoclave curing at 4 bar/153◦C, 7 bar/178◦C, and 10 bar/198◦C for 4 h. XRD, TGA/DTG, SEM/EDX, and BET/BJH techniques were utilized to clarify the phase development, morphological and texture features of the formed alkali-activated composite pastes. Besides, the removal capacity of some pastes for methylene blue and indigo-carmine dyes from aqueous media was evaluated. The results confirmed that C and C10B10S (80%GGBFS + 10%B + 10%S) pastes have significant mechanical properties and distinctive meso-porosity that can remove both anionic and cationic dyes.

Facile Synthesis of Polypyrrole-Decorated RGO-CuS Nanocomposite for Efficient Nickel Removal from Wastewater.

Efficient wastewater treatment, particularly the removal of heavy metal ions, remains a challenging priority in environmental remediation. This study introduces a novel sandwich-structured nanocomposite, RGO-CuS-PPy, composed of reduced graphene oxide (RGO), copper sulfide (CuS), and polypyrrole (PPy), synthesized via a straightforward hydrothermal method. The unique combination of RGO, CuS, and PPy offers enhanced adsorption capacity for Ni(II) ions due to RGO's high surface area and CuS's active binding sites, supported by PPy's structural stability contributions. This study is among the first to explore this specific nanocomposite architecture for Ni(II) removal, achieving an adsorption capacity of 166.67 mg/g and a high removal efficiency of 94.9% within 210 min for 55 mg/L of Ni(II) concentration at pH 6 and adsorbent dose of 3 mg/15 mL. The kinetic analysis shows the best fitted time-dependent experimental data with the pseudo-second-order model, indicating chemisorption. Isotherm studies confirmed the Langmuir model as the best fit, yielding a high monolayer adsorption capacity of 166.67 mg/g. Thermodynamic analysis shows the adsorption process was endothermic (ΔH° = 80.23 kJ/mol) and spontaneous (ΔG° ranging from -6.985 to -14.399 kJ/mol). Additionally, reusability tests using 0.1 M HCl for desorption demonstrated good reusability, emphasizing the RGO-CuS-PPy nanocomposite's potential as a sustainable adsorbent for Ni(II) removal in wastewater treatment applications.

Microplastic Contamination in Landfill Leachate and Surface Water: Assessment of Wastewater Treatment Efficiency at the Nonthaburi Waste Management Center, Thailand

Microplastics (MPs), plastic particles smaller than 5 mm, have emerged as a significant environmental concern, particularly as contaminants originating from landfills. Landfills can serve as a major source of MPs, potentially releasing them into surface water through leachate. This study aims to investigate the contamination of MPs in leachate and surface water, as well as to evaluate the efficiency of landfill wastewater treatment in removing these particles. The research was conducted at the Waste Management Center of the Nonthaburi Provincial Administrative Organization, Thailand, with samples collected in June 2023. Sampling included two leachate sources, influent and effluent from the treatment system and surface water. The abundance and characteristics of MPs in each sample were analyzed. Results indicated a significant presence of MPs in leachate, with an average concentration of 173.98 pieces/L, while concentrations in influent, effluent and surface water were 38.40 pieces/L, 10.80 pieces/L and 11.33 pieces/L, respectively. MPs in all samples were predominantly in the size range of 16-100 µm, corresponding to 71.28-93.75% of the total particles. Polypropylene was the dominant polymer in leachate (69.66%) and effluent (48.94%), whereas acrylate copolymer (96.53%) and polytetrafluoroethylene (44.12%) were the major types found in influent and surface water, respectively. The wastewater treatment system of the landfill demonstrated an overall removal efficiency of 71.88% for MPs in leachate. These findings highlight the extent of MP contamination in landfill environments and the importance of improving treatment processes to mitigate their release into surrounding ecosystems.

Optimizing Dye Wastewater Purification: Ultrasonic and Flotation With Ozonation Synergy

ABSTRACTThe article presents the results of experimental studies of the efficiency of purification of model and real wastewater from dyeing and finishing industries using pneumatic flotation using an ozone‐air mixture instead of air and a combination of ultrasonic treatment and ozonation. The influence of gas mixture consumption, dye concentration, and ozone concentration in the gas mixture on the cleaning efficiency was studied. The purification efficiency was assessed by optical density and COD. By using an ozone‐air mixture instead of air in the flotation process, an efficiency increase of up to 12 times was achieved. It has also been shown that wastewater treatment efficiency increases by up to 12% when combining ozone‐air flotation with ultrasonic treatment at 630 W and operating frequency 22% ± 10% kHz. This effect may be associated, first of all, with the dispersion of bubbles of the ozone‐air mixture, which leads to an increase in their total surface and, accordingly, to the rise in the kinetics of mass transfer—ozone dissolution.

Green preparation of carbon materials from biomass slag and steam as byproducts of power plants for efficient treatment of lead-containing wastewater

Green preparation of high-performance and cost-effective carbon materials using biomass slag and steam, which were the byproducts of power plants, for efficient treatment of lead (Pb(II))-containing wastewater was investigated. The optimum carbon material CH500-800 (SBET=818.8 m2/g and Vt=0.46 cm3/g) was produced by one-step steam activation at 800 ℃ for 1 h under a 500 mL/min stream with a heating rate of 5 °C/min. The obtained CH500-800 greatly enhanced the efficiency of Pb(II) removal, achieving the maximum adsorption capacity of 191.1 mg/g. The removal of Pb(II) from wastewater was well described by the Pseudo-second-order, Elovich and Freundlich model, suggesting that it was predominantly governed by chemical adsorption and diffusion on heterogeneous surfaces. The adsorption process demonstrated a synergistic mechanism involving pore and surface adsorption, chemical interactions between oxygen-containing groups (C-O and -OH) and Pb(II), as well as Pb(II)-π interactions, which was responsible for the efficient removal of Pb(II) from wastewater. Moreover, CH500-800 retained a potential for reusability with a high adsorption stability (only 2.5 % Pb(II) desorption after 48 h) and ion selectivity (>93.0 %) in the presence of K(I), Na(I) or Ca(II). Additionally, a circular economic model was proposed to valorize biomass slag and steam in situ for treating Pb(II)-containing wastewater effectively in biomass power plants. This approach provided an innovative solution for utilizing waste to treat hazardous substances within practical engineering applications.