Effective Adaptation Measures Research Articles

An integrated urban flooding risk analysis framework leveraging machine learning models: A case study of Xi'an, China

As global climate change intensifies and urbanization progresses, the frequency and extent of urban flooding have been increasing. This trend poses a significant threat to the safety and property of urban residents and severely impedes the advancement of sustainable development goals (SDGs). This study proposed an integrated urban flooding risk analysis framework to provide an essential basis for developing effective adaptation and mitigation measures. The kernel density estimation was adopted to analyze the distribution characteristics of urban flooding hotspots. The maximum entropy (MaxEnt) model was adopted for urban flooding risk probability assessment based on multi-source data. This study conducted an in-depth analysis from three perspectives including spatial analysis, risk planning and model comparison. The MaxEnt model and multiple exploratory spatial data analysis methods were combined to reveal spatial distribution patterns at grid cell scale. The MaxEnt and Zonation models were coupled to generate an urban flooding risk map. Further, six traditional machine learning models were compared with the MaxEnt model. The results indicate that rapid urbanization and intense human activities have significantly increased the number of buildings, leading to loss of previously existing blue and green spaces. These urban characteristics increase the vulnerability of cities to extreme rainfall. Compared to traditional machine learning models, the MaxEnt model has significant advantages. In the field of urban flooding risk, the MaxEnt model demonstrates significant potential for practical application. In summary, the framework empowers urban managers to comprehensively evaluate flooding risk in planning, supporting urban design and risk prevention.

Hindcasting long‐term data unveils the influence of a changing climate on small mammal communities

AbstractAimShifting climates are reshaping ecosystems globally and are projected to intensify over the coming century. Understanding how biodiversity will respond to these shifts is crucial for developing effective climate adaptation measures. We generate predictive models built from long‐term data to hindcast historic fluctuations in small mammal abundances as they have responded to shifting rainfall and fire conditions. This data set serves as the basis for predicting historical variations (hindcasting) in small mammal abundances, allowing us to examine their responses to decadal changes in fire and rainfall conditions within our study landscape.LocationAustralia (Victoria).TaxaSmall mammals (Mammalia).Time Period1970–2022.MethodsSmall mammal abundance was surveyed at 36 long‐term trapping sites and modelled against coinciding fire history, vegetation productivity and rainfall using generalized additive mixed models. Six species were then used in predictive modelling against these variables for the decades preceding our monitoring programme (1970–2007).ResultsAll species abundances increased with higher rainfall. Time since fire was also an important variable in all but one species model, with species displaying varying responses to time since fire. Hindcasting predictions for small mammal abundances varied with some species showing marked declines over time. Clear trends emerged, indicating more volatile population fluctuations in response to intensified fire and rainfall extremes in the 21st century. This suggests that periods of higher rainfall and less frequent fire events in the decades preceding our monitoring period supported higher and more stable small mammal abundances.ConclusionsNative species show distinct sensitivity to the combined effects of drought and fire, which has occurred in recent times. Intensification of these drivers has caused increased volatility in small mammal abundances with low abundance extremes occurring more frequently.

Citizen engagement in climate adaptation surveyed: Identifying challenges in education and capacity building

AbstractThe accelerating impacts of climate change present significant challenges to sustainable urban development, testing the resilience of current governance frameworks and stakeholder responsibilities. In alignment with the EU's Green Deal, robust adaptation strategies and proactive climate risk anticipation are essential. Traditional discussions emphasize overcoming technological, financial and institutional barriers; however, social and individual factors also significantly hinder adaptation. This study explores the pivotal role of citizen engagement in climate risk management and adaptation, focusing on the Lithuanian context and comparing the results with a survey in Sweden. The research evaluates both external influences, such as experiences with climate‐related hazards and adaptation actions, and internal factors, including beliefs, values and individual adaptive capacity. Key findings reveal that adaptation behaviour in Lithuania and in Sweden is deeply influenced by past experiences with extreme weather events and economic considerations, with a significant portion of the population having faced such events recently. Factors such as economic considerations (low costs, financial benefits) are identified as critical motivators for future adaptation actions in Lithuania. On the other hand, in Sweden, respondents first preferred ecological factors (such as contributing to climate change mitigation) when considering future adaptation actions. The study underscores the need for targeted educational interventions to enhance community resilience, highlighting the importance of socio‐cultural contexts in shaping adaptation strategies. It emphasizes the necessity for comprehensive, inclusive educational programmes that address local climate impacts and promote proactive community involvement. The findings advocate for further comparative studies across diverse socio‐cultural settings to deepen insights into effective adaptation measures and to support the development of resilient communities worldwide.

Environmental governance is critical for mitigating human displacement due to weather-related disasters

The impact of climate change is increasingly evident through intensified and more frequent weather-related events, resulting in a higher likelihood of disaster-induced displacement. In response, effective adaptation and resilience-building measures implemented through environmental governance are crucial. Here, we investigate the relationship between environmental governance (measured by the Notre Dame Country Index) and weather-related disaster displacements. Using a panel dataset of 92 countries from 2010 to 2020, Granger non-causality tests reveal a strong bidirectional relationship between environmental governance and disaster displacement. The relationship is primarily driven by governance readiness in the higher-income group, while both governance and economic readiness are crucial in the middle-income group. Notably, all three readiness components appear significant in the lower-income group, emphasizing the imperative for comprehensive disaster management strategies that address economic development, governmental effectiveness, and social conditions. These findings underscore the importance of effective environmental governance for climate change adaptation and sustainable development goals.

Climate Change, Human Rights, and Private Capital: The Obligation of States to Close the Climate Investment Gap

Abstract Climate change affects humanity in many ways, such as rising sea levels, water shortages, agricultural droughts, and the displacement of people. Thus, climate change threatens the enjoyment of human rights. States must therefore put in place effective mitigation and adaptation measures to combat climate change. But since no public budget can finance those transformation efforts, combatting climate change requires large sums of private capital. However, the international community has identified a multi-trillion dollar ‘climate investment gap’. Against this backdrop, the present contribution argues that international human rights obligations call on states to urgently redirect private investment flows into climate mitigation and adaptation measures. The existence of such an obligation and its impact on concrete policy decisions is then illustrated by three practical examples: the announced withdrawal of European states from the Energy Charter Treaty, Austria’s windfall tax on energy profits, and the US Inflation Reduction Act.

Climate change and seaports: hazards, impacts and policies and legislation for adaptation

Seaports are critical for global trade and development but are at risk of climate change-driven damages, operational disruptions and delays with extensive related economic losses. The aim of the present contribution is to (a) provide an overview of the main impacts of climate variability and change (CV&C) on ports; (b) present recent research on trends and projections involving the main climatic factors/hazards affecting global ports; (c) provide an analytical overview of emerging international and regional policies and legislation relevant to port risk assessment and resilience-building under climate change; and (d) consider issues and areas for further action. As shown by projections under different climatic scenarios and timelines, many global ports will increasingly be exposed to significantly growing hazards under increasing CV&C, including extreme sea levels (ESLs), waves, and extreme heat events. Depending on scenario (RCP 4.5 and RCP 8.5) by 2050, 55% to 59% of the 3630 global ports considered could face ESLs in excess of 2 m above the baseline mean sea levels (mean of the 1980–2014 period); by 2100, between 71% and 83% of ports could face ESLs of this magnitude. Ports in most tropical/sub-tropical settings will face the baseline (mean of the 1976 – 2005 period) 1-in-100 year extreme heat every 1 – 5 years, whereas with 3 oC global warming, most global ports (except some in higher latitudes) could experience the baseline 1-in-100 years extreme heat event every 1 – 2 years. A range of policy and legal instruments to support climate change adaptation, resilience-building and disaster risk reduction have been agreed internationally as well as at regional levels. At the EU level, relevant legal obligations and related normative technical guidance aimed at ensuring the climate proofing of new infrastructure are already in place as a matter of supra-national law for 27 EU Member States. These could significantly enhance levels of climate-resilience and preparedness for ports within the EU, as well as for EU funded port projects in other countries, and may serve as useful examples of good practices for other countries. However, further action is needed to advance and accelerate the implementation of effective adaptation measures for ports across regions.

Determinants of adaptive behaviors during heatwaves in Pakistan: a study based on personal heatwave experiences and hypothetical scenarios

Heatwaves have long been recognized as a serious public health threat. Effective adaptation measures can reduce the risks to people and ecosystems. The purpose of this study was to explore the determinants of heatwave adaptive behaviors using the Health Belief Model (HBM) as a framework. A cross-sectional study was conducted among a sample of 686 participants who were registered volunteers at the Alkhidmat Foundation in Pakistan, using an online questionnaire. For individual adaptive behaviors, only perceived benefits and self-efficacy were observed as significant predictors. For household adaptive behaviors, only cues to action and self-efficacy were found as significant predictors. In terms of overall adaptive behaviors, perceived benefits, perceived barriers, cues to action, and self-efficacy were significant predictors. Our study explores the influence of the HBM constructs on adaptive behaviors across various subgroups, highlighting their differential significance in rural and urban settings, formal and informal occupations, and experiences within heatwaves. These findings highlight the potential of the HBM in guiding the creation of impactful interventions that facilitate behavioral changes during heatwaves, thereby enhancing people’s adaptive behaviors. By emphasizing the association of the HBM with adaptive behaviors, our findings offer valuable insights for authorities seeking to make informed decisions and policies.

Leveraging climate and remote sensing metrics for predicting forest carbon stock using Bayesian geostatistical modelling under a projected climate warming in Zimbabwe

Climate change, driven by escalating carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions, poses a significant threat to forest ecosystems and the livelihoods of communities reliant on them, especially for the global south countries and regions like the eastern highlands of Zimbabwe. The 2000 land redistribution programme reduced buffer zones between ecologically sensitive forests and land reform beneficiaries near major carbon reservoirs. In light of these challenges, this study aimed to assess the potential effects of climate change on a strategically important plantation forest ecosystem in Zimbabwe's eastern highlands. Using data from the Coupled Model Inter-comparison Project Phase 6 (CMIP6) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), we modelled and predicted changes in forest carbon (C) stock density under different climate scenarios: current (1970–2000), SSP5–4.5, and SSP5–8.5. Employing a hierarchical Bayesian geostatistical approach, we compared the baseline scenario (1970–2000) with projected scenarios (RCP4.5 and RCP8.5) for 2075 to estimate changes in forest carbon stock distribution. Our results indicated a decline in carbon stock concentration under future climate scenarios, reflecting the adverse impact of greenhouse gas emissions on forest growth. We found that the projected range of forest carbon stock under the RCP8.5 scenario for 2075 is notably lower (2≤MgCha−1≤44.9) than that of the baseline period (1970–2000) (1≤MgCha−1≤97), suggesting a substantial reduction in carbon storage. As the difference in posterior mean C stock (μ̅1−μ̅2), 52.1 MgCha-1 is well above zero, we deduce that the posterior mean C stock distribution of the projected future RCP8.5 2075 climate projection is indeed credibly different from the current (1970–2000) climate scenario. Additionally, there is a high probability (>90%) that forest plantations will be adversely affected by the business-as-usual climate warming projection. Overall, our findings highlight the urgent need for climate change mitigation strategies, such as reforestation programs and careful selection of tree species for plantations, to safeguard forest ecosystems and the communities dependent on them. These insights are crucial for informing effective adaptation measures in the face of future climate uncertainties.

Impact of climate change on the reproductive diapause and voltinism of the carrot weevil, Listronotus oregonensis

The impacts of climate change on the development of insects are of great concern due to potential alterations in population dynamics and pest pressure. The carrot weevil, Listronotus oregonensis, is a major agricultural pest, and its development is influenced by temperature and photoperiod. In this study, our aim was to investigate the impact of temperature increases on the voltinism and reproductive diapause of the carrot weevil under field conditions and bioclimatic models. Field observations were conducted over two growing seasons using structures that allowed for temperature increases. The developmental stages of the carrot weevil, including female reproductive status, oviposition and larval stage, were monitored weekly to measure the proportion of individuals undergoing an additional generation. Concurrently, bioclimatic models were used to simulate the probability of a second generation under current (1981–2010) and future (2041–2070) climates, considering a lower and a higher change in emission scenarios. Results showed that rising temperatures led to an increase in the proportion of carrot weevils undergoing inhibition of the reproductive diapause and a higher number of eggs laid in the field. The models indicated a substantial rise in the probability of a second generation developing, from 24% to 37% to 62%–99% under current and future climates, respectively. These findings demonstrate the potential for significant alterations in carrot weevil population dynamics, resulting in increased pest pressure on crops. Further research is needed to fully understand the implications of these findings and to develop effective adaptation measures to mitigate the negative impacts of global warming on insect populations and agriculture.

Impacts of Climate Change on Livestock Productivity and Adaptation Strategies among Smallholder Farmers in Ethiopia: A Review on Climate Smart Livestock Production

Ethiopia has the largest livestock number in Africa. Nevertheless, the productivity of this sector faces susceptibility to the effects of climate change and associated risks. Therefore, it is imperative to conduct further research and gather data to gain a deeper understanding of these impacts. This understanding will facilitate the design of effective adaptation and mitigation measures, allowing Ethiopia to effectively respond to the challenges posed by climate change and variability. The primary aim of this article is to provide a review of the impacts of climate change on livestock productivity and summarize adaptation strategies employed by small-scale farmers in Ethiopia. The study highlights an increasing trend in the intensity and frequency of drought occurrences in the country, particularly in pastoralist and agro-pastoralist regions. These trends exacerbate climate-related issues such as limited access to rainfall and water, reduced availability and quality of animal feed, heightened risks of animal diseases, and increased heat stress, resulting in diminished livestock performance. Consequently, collaboration on adaptation programs among stakeholders is crucial to bolster the traditional coping mechanisms of pastoralists and agro-pastoralists in response to the adverse effects of climate change. Additionally, comprehensive research is needed to identify and select camel and goat breeds specifically suited for drought-prone areas, serving particular purposes.

Evaluation of hydrological responses to climate change in the Gibe Gojeb catchment, southwestern Ethiopia

ABSTRACT The expected influences of climate alteration on hydrological responses in the Gibe Gojeb catchment, southwestern Ethiopia, were evaluated using the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) model and regional climate models (RCMs). This study emphasizes the evaluation of the climate change impact on hydrological responses. The RCM data were downloaded from CORDEX-Africa. Power transformation and delta change methods were used for bias correction of precipitation and temperature, respectively. The calibration and validation of the SWAT model showed good agreement, and climate change impact was simulated. Accordingly, precipitation, soil water content, percolation, water yield, and groundwater are projected to decrease by 28.18, 7.5, 9.1, 5.4, and 9.2%, respectively, under RCP4.5 in the future (2021–2050). Besides, surface runoff and potential and actual evapotranspiration are projected to increase by 17.4, 11.32, and 5.06%, respectively. Soil water content, percolation, water yield, and precipitation are projected to decrease by 10.51, 5.63, 2.76, and 21.57%, respectively, under RCP8.5 in the future. Rain-fed crop production and hydropower generation in the catchment would be vulnerable to the effects of climate change. The results help to develop effective adaptation measures to reduce the impacts of climate change and draft long-term water resource management plans in the Gibe Gojeb catchment.

Understanding vegetation phenology responses to easily ignored climate factors in china's mid-high latitudes

Previous studies have primarily focused on the influence of temperature and precipitation on phenology. It is unclear if the easily ignored climate factors with drivers of vegetation growth can effect on vegetation phenology. In this research, we conducted an analysis of the start (SOS) and end (EOS) of the growing seasons in the northern region of China above 30°N from 1982 to 2014, focusing on two-season vegetation phenology. We examined the response of vegetation phenology of different vegetation types to preseason climatic factors, including relative humidity (RH), shortwave radiation (SR), maximum temperature (Tmax), and minimum temperature (Tmin). Our findings reveal that the optimal preseason influencing vegetation phenology length fell within the range of 0–60 days in most areas. Specifically, SOS exhibited a significant negative correlation with Tmax and Tmin in 44.15% and 42.25% of the areas, respectively, while EOS displayed a significant negative correlation with SR in 49.03% of the areas. Additionally, we identified that RH emerged as the dominant climatic factor influencing the phenology of savanna (SA), whereas temperature strongly controlled the SOS of deciduous needleleaf forest (DNF) and deciduous broadleaf forest (DBF). Meanwhile, the EOS of DNF was primarily influenced by Tmax. In conclusion, this study provides valuable insights into how various vegetation types adapt to climate change, offering a scientific basis for implementing effective vegetation adaptation measures.

Human adaptation to heat in the context of climate change: A conceptual framework

Climate change is causing serious damage to natural and social systems, as well as having an impact on human health. Among the direct effects of climate change is the rise in global surface temperatures and the increase in the frequency, duration, intensity and severity of heat waves. In addition, understanding of the adaptation process of the exposed population remains limited, posing a challenge in accurately estimating heat-related morbidity and mortality. In this context, this study seeks to establish a conceptual framework that would make it easier to understand and organise knowledge about human adaptation to heat and the factors that may influence this process. An inductive approach based on grounded theory was used, through the analysis of case studies connecting concepts. The proposed conceptual framework is made up of five components (climate change, vulnerability, health risks of heat, axes of inequality and health outcomes), three heat-adaptation domains (physiological, cultural and political), two levels (individual and social), and the pre-existing before a heat event. The application of this conceptual framework facilitates the assistance of decision-makers in planning and implementing effective adaptation measures. Recognizing the importance of addressing heat adaptation as a health problem that calls for political solutions and social changes. Accordingly, this requires a multidisciplinary approach that would foster the participation and collaboration of multiple actors for the purpose of proposing effective measures to address the health impact of the rise in temperature.

Cotton yield responses to climate change and adaptability of sowing date simulated by AquaCrop model

The feedback mechanism of cotton yield to climate change is important knowledge for cotton planting planning and stable production. However, the impact of sowing date on cotton yield in China's main cotton producing areas under future climate change is still unclear. To deal with it, this study first evaluated the applicability of the AquaCrop model using actual observed cotton growth and yield data. Then, based on the 27 Global Climate Models (GCMs) multi-model ensemble data in the Sixth Coupled Model Intercomparison Project (CMIP6), the future climate changes in China 's main cotton producing areas from 2021 and 2060 (2040 s) and 2061–2100 (2080 s) under two typical Shared Socioeconomic Pathways (SSP) 2–4.5 and SSP5–8.5 were predicted. Finally, the effects of different sowing dates on cotton yield under SSP2–4.5 and SSP5–8.5 scenarios were simulated. The results showed that: (1) AquaCrop model had good applicability and it could accurately simulate cotton growth and yield. (2) The temperature under the SSP2–4.5 and SSP5–8.5 scenarios increased significantly compared with the baseline period (1985–2020). Precipitation during the cotton growth period mainly showed an increasing trend, but the spatial and temporal variability was large. The reference crop evapotranspiration (ETo) during the cotton growth period mainly showed a decreasing trend under the SSP2–4.5 (2040 s) scenario, while it mainly showed an increasing trend in other future periods. (3) The cotton yield under the SSP2–4.5 and SSP5–8.5 scenarios increased by an average of 10.51% and 13.67%, 14.76% and 28.04% in 2040 s and 2080 s compared to the baseline period (1981–2015), respectively. (4) Early sowing was beneficial to increase cotton yield, cotton yield sown on March 31 increased by an average of 5.32% compared to May 10. In conclusion, future climate change will have positive impacts on cotton production in China, and early sowing is an effective adaptation measure to cope with climate change.

Prevalent underestimation of tree cooling efficiency attributed to urban intrinsic heterogeneity

As cities worldwide grapple with the escalating challenges of extreme heat events, afforestation can serve as an effective adaptation measure to mitigate heat stress. This study presents a comprehensive nationwide assessment of urban tree-induced cooling effects and provides a more accurate and robust methodology that accounts for the influence of spatial heterogeneity within the complex urban environment. Results reveal that the conventional method for assessing cooling efficiency (TCE) is substantially influenced by urban heterogeneity, in terms of both horizontal and vertical structures. The revised tree cooling efficiency (RTCE), designed to minimize the impacts of other land cover types on surface temperature variations, was proved to be a more accurate estimation. In 362 out of 379 cities across China, TCE tended to underestimate the cooling effects as a result of spatial heterogeneity. The nationwide average disparity between RTCE and TCE was approximately 0.047±0.0145 ℃ per percent (95 % confidence interval). The largest differences were observed among high-rise environments, highlighting the undervalued heat mitigation potential of urban trees in compact and densely populated urban settings. This study emphasizes the considerable potential of urban tree-cooling effects in mitigating heat stress in the face of a warming planet.

Intensifying human-driven heatwaves characteristics and heat related mortality over Africa

Heatwaves in Africa are expected to increase in frequency, number, magnitude, and duration. This is significant because the health burden is only expected to worsen as heatwaves intensify. Inadequate knowledge of the climate’s impact on health in developing nations such as Africa makes safeguarding the health of vulnerable groups at risk challenging. In this study, we quantify possible roles of human activity in heatwave intensification during the historical period, and project the future risk of heat-related mortality in Africa under two Representative Concentration Pathways (RCP26) and (RCP60). Heatwaves are measured using the Excess Heat Factor (EHF); the daily minimum (Tn ) and maximum (Tx ) are used to compute the EHF index; by averaging Tx and Tn . Two heat factors, significance and acclimatization are combined in the EHF to quantify the total excess heat. Our results confirm the intensification of heatwaves across Africa in recent years is due anthropogenic activity (increase in greenhouse gas concentration and changes in land use). The Return event highlights the potential future escalation of heatwave conditions brought on by climate change and socioeconomic variables. RCP26 projects a substantial rise in heat-related mortality, with an increase from about 9000 mortality per year in the historical period to approximately 23 000 mortality per year at the end of the 21st century. Similarly, RCP60 showed an even more significant increase, with heat-related mortality increasing to about 43 000 annually. This study highlights the potentially growing risk of intensifying heatwaves in Africa under different emission scenarios. It projects a significant increase in heatwave magnitude, number, duration, frequency, and heat-related mortality. Africa’s low adaptive capacity will amplify the impact, emphasizing the need for emissions reduction and effective adaptation measures.

Modeling coastal inundation for adaptation to climate change at local scale: the case of Marche Region (central Italy)

Climate change is raising sea level rise and storminess effects on coastal systems, affecting the morphology of coastlines and impacting coastal communities and ecosystems. It is essential to gain information at an adequate scale to identify effective adaptation measures. This is of major importance in areas combining high vulnerability to climate change with high socio-economic development, like the Northern Adriatic coastal area. To this aim, in this work two different approaches have been applied to investigate inland penetration of sea water along the Marche Region: (a) a simple “bathtub” method applied to the entire Marche coastline, to highlight areas likely prone to intense inundation; (b) a more accurate numerical model applied to two test sites, to gain detailed knowledge of inundation perimeters. Both approaches have been applied with forcing conditions provided by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and the Copernicus Climate Change Service through the RCP8.5 emission scenario projected to 2070. Results showed that a 100-year return period sea storm would cause the inundation of beaches and infrastructures located along the coast, as well as affecting harbor facilities and urban areas. Information obtained with the model has been integrated in the Regional Plan for Adaptation to climate change to define specific adaptation measures.

Review of climate change impact on water availability in the USA and Africa

This research paper reviews the impact of climate change on water availability in the USA and Africa. Global climate change trends reveal rising temperatures, altered precipitation patterns, and increasing extreme events, all influencing water resources. The diverse regional contexts in the USA encompass issues such as prolonged droughts, changing snowmelt patterns, and coastal vulnerabilities. In Africa, heightened susceptibility arises from dependence on rain-fed agriculture, contributing to increased aridity and intensified rainfall. Temperature changes and precipitation patterns emerge as critical factors influencing water availability, necessitating adaptive strategies. Both regions implement water conservation, infrastructure development, sustainable practices, and broader policies addressing emission reduction and community-based adaptation. Policy implications underscore the need for integrated water resource governance, climate-resilient infrastructure, and international collaboration. This review provides a nuanced understanding of the complexities involved, offering insights for effective adaptation and mitigation measures in the face of evolving climate challenges.

Exploring Key Aspects of Sea Level Rise and Their Implications: An Overview

Sea level rise (SLR) is one of the most pressing challenges of climate change and has drawn noticeable research interest over the past few decades. Factors induced by global climate change, such as temperature increase, have resulted in both direct and indirect changes in sea levels at different spatial scales. Various climatic and non-climatic events contribute to sea level changes, posing risks to coastal and low-lying areas. Nevertheless, changes in sea level are not uniformly distributed globally due to several regional factors such as wave actions, storm surge frequencies, and tectonic land movement. The high exposure to those factors increases the vulnerability of subjected areas to SLR impacts. The impacts of events induced by climate change and SLR are reflected in biophysical, socioeconomic, and environmental aspects. Different indicator-based and model-based approaches are used to assess coastal areas’ vulnerabilities, response to impacts, and implementation of adaptation and mitigation measures. Various studies have been conducted to project future SLR impacts and evaluate implemented protection and adaptation approaches, aiding policymakers in planning effective adaptation and mitigation measures to reduce damage. This paper provides an overview of SLR and its key elements, encompassing contributing factors, impacts, and mitigation and adaptation measures, featuring a dedicated section on the Arabian Gulf, a semi-enclosed sea.

The mitigation effectiveness of farmers’ adaptation measures for seasonal drought: evidence from major rice growing areas in southern China

To assess the mitigation effectiveness of farmers’ adaptation measures for seasonal drought, we focused on the 2013 seasonal drought disaster in Jiangxi Province, southern China, the major rice growing areas, a typical case from China. First, we surveyed 755 farm households in Jiangxi Province that were harmed by seasonal drought in 2013. Based on the data from this survey, we constructed econometric models and used an instrumental variable approach to evaluate the effects of adaptation measures on the rice yield reduction due to seasonal drought, and then examined the factors influencing the capacity of farmers to adopt effective adaptation measures. The results show that: 1) More adaptation measures adopted by farmers can be effective in reducing the negative impacts of seasonal droughts on rice production. 2) All three types of measures, structural adjustment adaptation measures (SAAM), irrigation adaptation measures (IAM) and engineering adaptation measures (EAM) can significantly mitigate rice yield reduction due to seasonal drought, and SAAM and IAM perform more effectively. 3) Farmers’ social communication, frequency of droughts and access to disaster prevention information can help to increase the capacity of farmers to adopt adaptation measures, while distance from roads has a negative effect. 4) In terms of the different supportive policies, policies with higher-level agents and human support are more effective in increasing the ability of farmers to adopt adaptation measures. Our findings provide the following policy insights. On the one hand, it is necessary to increase the capacity of farmers to adopt measures by improving their social communication, incentivizing them to access information on resilience, and providing more supportive policies, especially policies with higher-level agents and human support. On the other hand, farmers should be encouraged to actively adopt adaptation measures to reduce the hazards of seasonal drought, especially SAAM and IAM.