An integrated urban flooding risk analysis framework leveraging machine learning models: A case study of Xi'an, China

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As global climate change intensifies and urbanization progresses, the frequency and extent of urban flooding have been increasing. This trend poses a significant threat to the safety and property of urban residents and severely impedes the advancement of sustainable development goals (SDGs). This study proposed an integrated urban flooding risk analysis framework to provide an essential basis for developing effective adaptation and mitigation measures. The kernel density estimation was adopted to analyze the distribution characteristics of urban flooding hotspots. The maximum entropy (MaxEnt) model was adopted for urban flooding risk probability assessment based on multi-source data. This study conducted an in-depth analysis from three perspectives including spatial analysis, risk planning and model comparison. The MaxEnt model and multiple exploratory spatial data analysis methods were combined to reveal spatial distribution patterns at grid cell scale. The MaxEnt and Zonation models were coupled to generate an urban flooding risk map. Further, six traditional machine learning models were compared with the MaxEnt model. The results indicate that rapid urbanization and intense human activities have significantly increased the number of buildings, leading to loss of previously existing blue and green spaces. These urban characteristics increase the vulnerability of cities to extreme rainfall. Compared to traditional machine learning models, the MaxEnt model has significant advantages. In the field of urban flooding risk, the MaxEnt model demonstrates significant potential for practical application. In summary, the framework empowers urban managers to comprehensively evaluate flooding risk in planning, supporting urban design and risk prevention.