Ecological Characters Research Articles

Сonceptual approaches to organization of monitoring of geological environment and mineral resources of Ukraine in modern terms

Monitoring of geological environment and mineral resources is a very important element, which provides functioning of all system of state administration in the field of environment protection, uses of natural resources and ecological safety in Ukraine, development of which the protracted historical period was determined by the mining minerals export of products of its processing. It stipulated critical, often close to catastrophic, state of geological environment in the basic mining districts of country. Especially a situation was aggravated in Donbas, where, in connection with the conduct of battle actions, out-of-control closing of mines and stopping of the mine waters pumping, an ecocatastrophe began to develop rapid rates. The programs of ecological rehabilitation of mining regions must be based on the constantly operating real-time prognosis model of geological environment on the basis of the geographic information system with the debugged systems of monitoring of its different parts (hydrogeological, engineer-geological, seismic, contaminations of soils and surface water et al). At creation and functioning of such models in districts with the crisis and catastrophic state of environment financial resources will be distributed more rationally on warning and decision of concrete ecological problems which can arise up in case of realization of the most ecological risks expected in such model. Main recommendations for renewal of the environmental monitoring system for the geological environment are the following: 1) creation of regional monitoring centers, which should be responsible for constantly functioning model; 2) renewal (or creation) monitoring networks for the state of geological environment, as the main suppliers of information for the constantly operating model; 3) development of mathematical hydrogeological models for increasing the probability of groundwater level forecasts and justification of measures for ecological rehabilitation of territories and the forecast of extraordinary ecological situations; 4) territory zoning under the risk of natural and natural-technogenic hazards; 5) creation of basin and territorial schemes for managing levels of underground and surface waters through the integrated use of horizontal and vertical (including underground mine) drains; 6) substantiation of priority and long-term measures to respond to prevailing impacts of ecological changes within territories on the economy structure, the employment composition of local population, the potential of sustainable development. One of important tasks to monitoring of raw mineral-material base in modern terms is development of mechanisms of bringing in of investments in geological industry. The purpose of geological and economic monitoring is to ensure the process of decision making at different administrative levels, on the one hand, and creation of information base for the economic evaluation of natural resources, on the other hand, and these components are interrelated parts of the same process. Information at operating and potential mining objects must be complemented by the indexes of economic and ecological character, shown out on the level of state statistics, and (on possibility) maximally open. It is proposed indicators for monitoring mineral resource base for different stages of development: for reconnaissance, prospecting, exploration and exploitation of deposits. The following groups of indicators are recommended for each stage of development: geological, mining, technological, economic and financial, environmental. This list requires careful processing to really reflect the environmental impact of mining and other industrial companies, environmental risks that arise on the territory of their influence, and economic losses. The latter concerns not only direct losses and those arising from non-receipt of profits from territory use in other activities (e.g. agricultural or tourism). The proposed monitoring systems include objects for all types of subsoil use and include implementation at the local, regional, and state levels.

Integrating multilocus DNA data and 3D geometric morphometrics to elucidate species boundaries in the case of Pyrenaearia (Pulmonata: Hygromiidae)

To accurately delimit species the use of multiple character types is essential as all speciation processes are not equally reflected in different data (e.g. morphological, molecular or ecological characters). With the introduction of geometric morphometrics methods and advances in 3D technology, a comprehensive combination of molecular and morphological data has been enabled in groups where exhaustively quantifying and measuring morphological shape change was not possible before such as gastropod shells. In this study, we combined multilocus coalescent species delimitation methods with 3D geometric morphometrics of shell shape to delimit species within the land snail genus Pyrenaearia. A new taxonomic scheme was constructed for the genus identifying ten species. Two nominal species were synonymized and a hitherto unrecognized cryptic species was identified. Our findings support the importance of combining multiple lines of evidence as molecular and morphological data on their own do not yield the same information. Further, the integration of morphological and molecular data shows the importance of allometry in shell shape and suggests a combined effect of population history and selection in different environments on shells morphological variation. Our new taxonomy and phylogenetic reconstruction suggest that, besides the glacial cycles of the Pleistocene, passive dispersal and rock substrate complexity could also have been involved in the speciation of the genus.

A new classification for deep-sea opecoelid trematodes based on the phylogenetic position of some unusual taxa from shallow-water, herbivorous fishes off south-west Australia

We report on Scorpidotrema longistipes and two new species belonging to a new genus: Holsworthotrema enboubal ichthys gen. et sp. nov. and Holsworthotrema chaoderma sp. nov. These taxa are the first representatives of the subfamily Stenakrinae included in molecular phylogenetic analyses of the Opecoelidae. They resolve among the deep-sea + freshwater Plagioporinae (s.l.) clade, but exploit shallow-water marine fishes. Based on phylogeny, ecology and morphology, we reorganize this clade into four subfamilies: the Plagioporinae (s.s.) for freshwater taxa, the Stenakrinae as currently defined with the addition of Holsworthotrema, the Bathycreadiinae subf. nov. for Bathycreadium and the Podocotylinae, a resurrected concept, for Podocotyle, Bathypodocotyle gen. nov., Buticulotrema, Halosaurotrema gen. nov., Macrourimegatrema, Neolebouria and Tellervotrema. Bathypodocotyle is proposed for species from deep-sea fishes previously assigned to Allopodocotyle, and Halosaurotrema for Gaevskajatrema halosauropsi. Two deep-sea opecoelids represented by sequence data, Neolebouria lanceolata and Podocotyloides brevis, remain inadequately accommodated. These taxa are sister to the Stenakrinae and may require another new subfamily, but it is not yet clear which morphological and/or ecological characters would distinguish such a concept. Evidently, neither belongs to its nominal genus; we propose to accommodate these taxa in Mesobathylebouria gen. nov. and Abyssopedunculus gen. nov., respectively.

Specimen-based analysis of morphology and the environment in ecologically dominant grasses: the power of the herbarium.

Herbaria contain a cumulative sample of the world's flora, assembled by thousands of people over centuries. To capitalize on this resource, we conducted a specimen-based analysis of a major clade in the grass tribe Andropogoneae, including the dominant species of the world's grasslands in the genera Andropogon, Schizachyrium, Hyparrhenia and several others. We imaged 186 of the 250 named species of the clade, georeferenced the specimens and extracted climatic variables for each. Using semi- and fully automated image analysis techniques, we extracted spikelet morphological characters and correlated these with environmental variables. We generated chloroplast genome sequences to correct for phylogenetic covariance and here present a new phylogeny for 81 of the species. We confirm and extend earlier studies to show that Andropogon and Schizachyrium are not monophyletic. In addition, we find all morphological and ecological characters are homoplasious but variable among clades. For example, sessile spikelet length is positively correlated with awn length when all accessions are considered, but when separated by clade, the relationship is positive for three sub-clades and negative for three others. Climate variables showed no correlation with morphological variation in the spikelet pair; only very weak effects of temperature and precipitation were detected on macrohair density.This article is part of the theme issue 'Biological collections for understanding biodiversity in the Anthropocene'.

Assessment of noise pollution at municipal economy objects in Pyatigorsk

People living in modern cities are always exposed to the influence of various factors of technology-induced or anthropogenic character. The investigations which have been carried out by the present time show that the resort cities of the Caucasus Mineral Waters (CMW) region are no exception. Nowadays, a particular attention is paid to the ecosystem of the existing urban development, where the resort cities of the CMW region are worth an increased focus on. A resort city with its attractive natural-and-resource parameters faces inherent problems of ecological character one of which is the noise pollution of the environment. For a city with non-industrial functional orientation, the main source of this pollution is its transport infrastructure. The development of the resort city of Pyatigorsk which started in the XIXth century did not provide for high traffic loads as well as for the source intensity typical of a modern city, therefore, today it is necessary to carry out an analysis of the noise loads and in the case of necessity to organize the work, aimed at restoring the favorable conditions in the resort city.

DNA Barcoding and Taxonomic Challenges in Describing New Putative Species: Examples from Sootywing and Cloudywing Butterflies (Lepidoptera: Hesperiidae)

DNA barcoding has resulted in the ‘discovery’ of a vast number of new species and subspecies. Assigning formal scientific names to these taxa remains a major challenge. Names sometimes are newly designated. Alternatively, available valid names can be resurrected from synonymy, based on barcode analyses together with classical taxonomic characters. For the most part, however, new putative species revealed by barcoding studies go undescribed. This situation is most often attributed to insufficient taxonomic expertise with the authors conducting the study, together with a critical lack of formally trained taxonomists. However, even with formal training, and additional supportive data from morphological, ecological or life history characters, other factors can arise that impede new species descriptions. In the present paper, several specific taxonomic challenges that have arisen from barcode analyses in two groups of skipper butterflies (Lepidoptera: Hesperiidae), the Sootywings (Pholisora catullus and P. mejicanus) and the Coyote Cloudywing (Achalarus toxeus) are highlighted and discussed. Both P. catullus and A. toxeus show relatively large intraspecific genetic divergences of barcodes (2–3%) which suggests the possibility of previously unrecognized cryptic speciation within each group. Some of the challenges to providing formal names and clarifying taxonomic status of these cryptic taxa could be largely overcome by (1) barcoding type specimens, (2) clarifying imprecise and often vague or suspect type localities, and (3) by conducting in-depth comparative studies on genitalic morphology.

Taxonomy, Ecology and Conservation Status of the MossesFissidens bryoides,F. gymnandrusandF. viridulusin Finland

In recent treatments of Fissidens subgenus Fissidens, the species delimitation of F. bryoides, the type species of the subgenus, has been rather variable. In Finland, F. bryoides has either been split into F. bryoides, F. gymnandrus and F. viridulus, or treated as a single species, F. bryoides s. lato, including two or more intraspecific taxa. The herbarium material of Finnish F. bryoides, F. gymnandrus and F. viridulus was studied to clarify the distribution and ecological requirements of the three taxa and to find out which morphological and ecological characters are best for their delimitation. The phylogeny lends support to recognizing F. bryoides s. lato including F. gymnandrus and F. viridulus as F. bryoides var. gymnandrus and F. bryoides var. viridulus. The phylogeny reconstruction based on 18 morphological characters that are commonly used to distinguish the taxa could not resolve F. bryoides, F. gymnandrus and F. viridulus as monophyletic species. However, F. bryoides s. lato including all herbarium material of the three species was resolved as a monophyletic group morphologically distinct from the closely related F. pusillus. The synapomorphic characters that distinguish F. bryoides s. lato are the percurrent costa, limbidia that reach the leaf acumen, the acuminate leaf acumen, and a preference for substrates other than rock. We found differences in habitat requirements between the varieties, while sexual systems sometimes vary even within a single specimen. Fissidens bryoides var. bryoides and F. bryoides var. gymnandrus appear to have wider distribution in Finland than expected. Unlike F. bryoides var. viridulus the number of localities of F. bryoides var. bryoides and F. bryoides var. gymnandrus is low. Information on their conservation status is also provided.

섬진강 조하대 하구와 을숙도 모래갯벌에 서식하는 일본재첩의 서식환경에 따른 개체군 생태특성 비교

섬진강 조하대 하구와 을숙도 모래갯벌에 서식하는 일본재첩의 서식환경에 따른 개체군 생태특성 비교

Advances in the knowledge of the Inocybe mixtilis group (Inocybaceae, Agaricomycetes), through molecular and morphological studies.

Inocybe mixtilis constitutes a complex of species characterized by nodulose-angulose spores, absence of cortina and a more or less bulbous marginate stipe that is not darkening when desiccated. In order to elucidate species limits within the I. mixtilis complex, an ITS-RPB2 phylogeny was performed and interpreted using morphological and ecological characters. Six supported clades were obtained in our analyses that correspond to I. mixtilis, I. subtrivialis, and four new species to science: I. ceskae, I. johannis-stanglii, I. nothomixtilis and I. occulta. Species within this complex can be morphologically recognized through a unique combination of morphological characters, such as the spore shape, cystidial length and shape, presence and development of the velipellis and pileus colour and viscidity. Nevertheless, those characters overlap, especially among I. mixtilis, I. ceskae and I. occulta, and intermediate collections are therefore more reliably identified through ITS-sequencing. Two species, I. ceskae and I. occulta are present in both North America and Europe, while the rest are so far only known in Europe, or Europe and Asia (I. mixtilis). All species, except I. johannis-stanglii, seem to be able to establish ectomycorrhizal association both with conifers and angiosperms. Descriptions, colour illustrations and a key to all known species in the I. mixtilis group are provided.

Long-term declines in waterbirds abundance at Lake Junín, Andean Peru

SummaryLake Junín is famous for the abundance and diversity of breeding, staging and wintering waterbirds. The lake supports the entire world population of three species or subspecies: Junín GrebePodiceps taczanowskii,Junín RailLaterallus tuerosiand the endemic subspecies of the White-tufted GrebeRollandia rolland morrisoni. Surveys undertaken in the 1930s, 1960s, 1970s and 1980s confirmed the lake’s importance in the Andes, however there has been no recent assessment of its waterbird community. We undertook waterbird counts between 6 and 20 February 2014 from the lakeshore and by boat. Despite using differing survey methods, we nevertheless conclude that the relative abundance of waterbird species has changed dramatically compared to earlier counts. Most notably, the Junín Grebe has experienced a major decline since the 1930s when the species was considered extremely abundant and another native fish-eating species the White-tufted Grebe also appears to have declined. In contrast the Northern Silvery GrebePodiceps juninensis, classified as ‘Near Threatened’, has apparently become more abundant. Numbers of Puna TealSpatula punaand Common GallinuleGallinula galeataseem to have crashed, presumably reflecting the general loss of submerged vegetation. In spite of a major decline in waterbirds overall, the Junín area holds numbers of migratory shorebirds, perhaps as a consequence of local hunting restrictions and awareness campaigns. Lake Junín is a candidate for listing on the Montreux Record under the Ramsar Convention as a wetland showing serious change in ecological character. Management planning should proceed to balance conflicting interests at the lake. Actions to re-establish a clear water column by reducing eutrophication (from settlements in the catchment) as well as sedimentation and heavy metals (from upstream mining) will contribute to improving ecological functions and to secure waterbirds including the endemics.

Ecological sorting and character displacement contribute to the structure of communities ofClarkiaspecies

Despite long-standing interest in the evolutionary ecology of plants that share pollinators, few studies have explored how these interactions may affect communities during both community assembly (ecological sorting) and through ongoing, insitu evolution (character displacement), and how the effects of these interactions may change with community context. To determine if communities display patterns consistent with ecological sorting, we assessed the frequency of co-occurrence of four species of Clarkia in the southern Sierra foothills (Kern County, CA, USA). To investigate potential character displacement, we measured pollination-related traits on plants grown in a greenhouse common garden from seed collected in communities with one, two or four Clarkia species. Among the four species of Clarkia in this region, the two species that are often found in multi-species communities also co-occur with one another more frequently than expected under a null model. This pattern is consistent with ecological sorting, although further investigation is needed to determine the role of pollinators in shaping community assembly. Patterns of trait variation in a common garden suggest that these two species have diverged in floral traits and converged in flowering time where they co-occur, which is consistent with character displacement. Trait variation across community types also suggests that the process and outcome of character displacement may vary with community context. Because community context appears to affect both the direction and magnitude of character displacement, change in more species-rich communities may not be predictable from patterns of change in simpler communities.

Biodiversity, Evolution and Ecological Specialization of Baculoviruses: A Treasure Trove for Future Applied Research.

The Baculoviridae, a family of insect-specific large DNA viruses, is widely used in both biotechnology and biological control. Its applied value stems from millions of years of evolution influenced by interactions with their hosts and the environment. To understand how ecological interactions have shaped baculovirus diversification, we reconstructed a robust molecular phylogeny using 217 complete genomes and ~580 isolates for which at least one of four lepidopteran core genes was available. We then used a phylogenetic-concept-based approach (mPTP) to delimit 165 baculovirus species, including 38 species derived from new genetic data. Phylogenetic optimization of ecological characters revealed a general pattern of host conservatism punctuated by occasional shifts between closely related hosts and major shifts between lepidopteran superfamilies. Moreover, we found significant phylogenetic conservatism between baculoviruses and the type of plant growth (woody or herbaceous) associated with their insect hosts. In addition, we found that colonization of new ecological niches sometimes led to viral radiation. These macroevolutionary patterns show that besides selection during the infection process, baculovirus diversification was influenced by tritrophic interactions, explained by their persistence on plants and interactions in the midgut during horizontal transmission. This complete eco-evolutionary framework highlights the potential innovations that could still be harnessed from the diversity of baculoviruses.

Physical and mechanical properties of boards made from modified rapeseed straw particles

Composites made from annual plants, such as winter rapeseed, can be used as an alternative to wood-based composites because of their ecological character, low price, as well as physical and mechanical properties. The goal of this study was to prepare such boards and evaluate their properties. Unmodified material and chemically and hydrothermally modified rapeseed particles glued by powder polyester glue were used. The characteristics measured were the internal bonding, swelling and moisture uptake over time, and surface soundness. The results showed that modification of the raw material influenced the properties of the resulting composites. The highest swelling values were exhibited by the boards with particles that were alkaline-modified. Boards made from hydrothermally modified particles achieved the highest strengths compared with the commercially produced boards. The alkaline modification of the particles resulted in a stronger adhesive bond between the particle and adhesive. During the internal bonding test, the boards made from the alkaline-modified particles exhibited cohesive failures in the particles. Therefore, the modification of the particles increased the mechanical properties of the boards, but the physical properties deteriorated.

Pleistocene vertebrates from the Kyparíssia lignite mine, Megalopolis Basin, S. Greece: Rodentia, Carnivora, Proboscidea, Perissodactyla, Ruminantia

The lignite mine of Kyparíssia is situated in the northern part of the Middle Pleistocene fluvio-lacustrine basin of Megalopolis (central Peloponnesus, Greece). During the years 2004–2008 numerous vertebrate fossils have cropped out in the mining sections and collected or excavated during short-term field expeditions. The finds derive mainly from organic-rich sediments (mostly lignites) and two fossiliferous horizons, which are stratigraphically closely situated. They are generally widely dispersed along the western margin of the palaeolake. Denser concentrations were found in four sites, dubbed KYP1–KYP4. The recovered fauna is diverse, dominated by hippopotamuses, deer and elephants. The present study describes the samples referred to castorids, carnivores, proboscideans, perissodactyls and ruminants. The following taxa are recognised: Castor fiber, Canis sp., Hyaenidae indet., Felis sp., Panthera sp., Palaeoloxodon antiquus, Stephanorhinus sp., Equus sp., Praemegaceros verticornis, Cervus elaphus, Dama sp., ‘Cervus’ peloponnesiacus, and Cervidae indet. This fauna is of Galerian type, suggesting an early Middle Pleistocene age for the locality. The ecological character is that of a temperate, predominantly woodland/forest environment, with continuous presence of a large freshwater body.

Phylogeny of the Caninae (Carnivora): Combining morphology, behaviour, genes and fossils

AbstractPhylogenetic relationships among 36 Recent and 42 extinct species of the Caninae (Canidae) were analysed, based on 360 morphological, developmental, ecological, behavioural and cytogenetic characters and 24 mitochondrial and nuclear markers. Primary phylogenetic analyses were accompanied by experimental analyses based on various combinations of data partitions and taxon samples. Leptocyon was recovered as a paraphyletic stem lineage of the Caninae; monophyly/paraphyly of the fox‐like canids (Vulpini) remains uncertain; Urocyon and Metalopex form a clade, possibly sister to all non‐Leptocyon canids; Otocyon, Nyctereutes and Nurocyon form a clade; dog‐like canids (Canini) are monophyletic (with South American Cerdocyonina and Afro‐Holarctic Canina); all South American hypercarnivores (Canis gezi, Protocyon, Speothos, Theriodictis) form a clade, close to Chrysocyon and Dusicyon; Canis arnensis, C. ferox, C. thooides, C. lepophagus and Eucyon spp. are basal to the Canina; Lycaon is an isolated African hypercarnivore; Cuon and its relatives (Xenocyon, possibly also Canis antonii, C. falconeri and Cynotherium) form a clade close to Canis s. str.; C. edwardii–C. etruscus–C. mosbachensis–C. palmidens–C. variabilis and hypercarnivorous Canis armbrusteri–C. dirus clades belong to Canis s. str. As the highly homoplastic morphological characters connected to dietary biology are the prominent characters available for the key fossil species, we conclude that macroevolutionary and palaeoecological analyses of the extinct and extant Caninae were to some extent compromised by the phylogenies used.

Interspecific association and functional group classification of the dominant populations in shrub layer in secondary forest of Pinus tabuliformis in Qinling Mountain, China.

We analyzed the interspecific association among 20 dominant populations in shrub layer in secondary natural forest of Pinus tabuliformis in Qinling Mountain, China, with X2-test, the association coefficients and the percentage of common occurrence. The results showed that the species pairs with significant positive associations accounted for only 7.4% of the total 190 species pairs. The species pairs such as Lespedeza bicolor and Elaeagnus pungens, Toxicodendron vernicifluum and Pinus tabuliformis, Euonymus alatus and Cerasus tomentosa had extremely significant positive correlations, whereas most of the species pairs showed weak interspecific association. The ratio of positive and negative correlations was less than 1. The results suggested that the interspecific association was relatively weak. Species were with certain independence among dominant populations. Community structure was at an unstable mid-stage with dynamic succession. According to the interspecific association and cluster analysis, combined with biological and ecological characters, the 20 dominant populations in shrub layer were classified into four functional groups. The ecological requirement and resource use pattern of species within the same functional groups were similar, exhibiting a close connection between the shrub species. The connection between different functional groups was relatively loose.

Habitat partitioning during character displacement between the sexes.

Ecological differences between the sexes are often interpreted as evidence of within-species ecological character displacement (ECD), a hypothesis with almost no direct tests. Here, we experimentally test two predictions that are direct corollaries of ECD between the sexes, in a salamander. First, we find support for the prediction that each sex has a growth rate advantage in the aquatic microhabitat where it is most commonly found. Second, we test the prediction that selection for ECD in the breeding environment may affect partial migration out of this environment. We found that phenotype-dependent migration resulted in a shift in the phenotypic distribution across treatments, with the highest sexual dimorphism occurring among residents at high founding density, suggesting that migration and ECD can both be driven by competition. Our work illustrates how complex patterns of habitat partitioning evolve during ECD between the sexes and suggest ECD and partial migration can interact to effect both ecological dynamics and evolution of sexual dimorphism.

Monitoring the Vegetation Communities on the Southern Slope of the Gutai Mountains on the Basis of Ecological Indices

The analysis of the composition on the ecologic categories of the mountain region flora of the southern slope of the Gutai Mountains was carried out to monitor the adaptive and evolutionary process of the species. To achieve the spectrum of the ecological categories consideration was given to the preferences of the species against the main ecological factors: edaphic humidity (U), air temperature (T) and soil reaction (R). The results obtained are well-suited to the ecological character of the mountain flora, the stenoionic species illustrate the neutrophilic acid character of soils, with some peculiarities related to the type of mother rocks.

Forest, wetland and biodiversity: Revealing multi-faceted ecological services from ecorestoration of a degraded tropical landscape

With the deterioration of tropical forests, the loss of species, their habitat and linked socio-ecological degradation is regrettably becoming widespread. Although having their own contribution to sustainable development separately, the linkages between wetlands and forests exemplify the importance of managing ecosystems in their entirety to protect their ecological character and related ecosystem services (ES) that are vital to human activity. To explore the role of ecorestoration efforts within forest-wetland ecosystem in conserving biodiversity and maintaining the sustained flow of ES, the multi-decadal recovery of a degraded landscape of Gurguripal forest, West Bengal, India, was tracked with the help of geospatial technology and field surveys of biodiversity and socio-ecological bonds. To evidence the noticeable recovery of the study site over 25 years remote sensing (RS) techniques were used to track forest type and land use land cover (LULC) changes over time, together with an ecological monitoring at site of the sal dominated tropical deciduous forest and the created wetland ecosystems using ground truth data on vegetation, floral and faunal diversity, physicochemical parameters of water and soil, etc. and socio-ecological survey do depict existing ecosystem services (ES) of these ecosystems. The study confirms positive effects of watershed management initiated by the Forest Department, Government of West Bengal, involving local people ultimately causing reduction in the proportion of degraded land and an increase in green coverage that has been strikingly manifested through retaining surface water. In spite of the lower incidence of terrestrial fauna inside the core of secondary forest with respect to fringe areas, the wetlands, so formed, not only serve as vital perennial water sources in this drought-prone lateritic tract and enrich aquatic biodiversity, but also multifariously multiply the value of ES in this otherwise degrading piece of land.

Conflicting Values in Rural Planning: A Multifunctionality Approach through Social Multi-Criteria Evaluation

The planning of rural land depends, to a large extent, on the agreed-upon agrarian and forestry development model. Within the framework of agrarian multifunctionality, to evaluate different development alternatives and their effect on territorial planning, its multiple dimensions must be considered as well as the interests and needs of the stakeholders. This work thus addresses the comprehensive evaluation of development alternatives for the rural area of a municipality of the Basque Country (Spain) through the implementation of a multi-criteria evaluation method with social participation. The results show, firstly, the existence of trade-offs between the functions to be promoted in the various development models evaluated. Secondly, the results indicate the need to reverse recent trends in the sector and the convenience of moving towards an agro-livestock model of greater ecological and local character, independently of the followed forest model. In fact, the evaluation carried out also reveals, thirdly, the existence of more or less latent conflicts, in particular with regards to forest policy.