Du Salut Research Articles

Across the Atlantic: morbidity, geography, and the eighteenth-century French Atlantic slave trade

ABSTRACT In 1765, enslaved Africans boarded the Roi Guinguin in Badagry as part of a restitution agreement between a Nantesian slave trading company and an African ruler. These captive Africans endured treacherous journeys from West Africa’s interior to Badagry, then Príncipe, then toward Saint Domingue before being rerouted to Cayenne in Guyane (French Guiana), and then the Îles du Salut for a smallpox quarantine. The captain of the Roi Guinguin and French imperial officials’ fears of smallpox outbreaks and other contagious diseases prompted them to halt and reroute the voyage to refreshment centers and quarantines along the West African and South American coasts. The African captives took these stopovers as opportunities to flee and otherwise resist their enslavement. The enslaved Africans felt West African and European imperialism and commerce come to bear on and in their bodies as slave traders and colonial officials exploited the African and South American coastal geography.

Jihadist disengagement and deradicalization in France and Belgium

Although jihadist organizations continue to attract large numbers of people in their wake, particularly from Europe, their recruitment capacity should not mask the difficulties they are currently encountering. In the face of the military setbacks suffered by Caliph al-Baghdadi's organization, experts have noted not only a decline in departures to areas controlled by the Islamic State, but also difficulties in keeping members within the organization. Many of its supporters have decided to desert, abandoning the armed struggle. This phenomenon is confirmed by a King's College study led by Peter Neumann, which claims that between 20% and 30% of jihadists decide to return to their country of origin. This report is based on the testimony of 58 "deserters" from the Islamic State, including nine from Western Europe and Australia, who have publicly recounted their reasons for leaving. In France, according to a report by the Criminal Affairs Directorate, more than 200 individuals have returned from Syria and Iraq. This phenomenon of jihadist defection is not new. It was already observed in the 1970s-1990s among armed Islamic groups in Algeria (GIA, Armée islamique du Salut, Groupe salafiste de prédication et de combat) , Morocco (Shabiba islâmiyya) , or Egypt (Islamic jihad and Gamâ'a islâmiyya) , for example.

Guillaume Cuchet on Catholicism in France: Sentiment, Eclecticism, Collapse, and Future

Guillaume Cuchet on Catholicism in France:Sentiment, Eclecticism, Collapse, and Future Stephen Schloesser S.J. (bio) Le Catholicisme a-t-il encore de l'avenir en France? By Guillaume Cuchet. (Paris: Les Éditions du Cerf, 2021. Pp. 256. 21,00 €. ISBN 9782021472745.) Une histoire du sentiment religieux au XIXe siècle. By Guillaume Cuchet. (Paris: Les Éditions du Cerf, 2020. Pp. 424. 24,00 €. ISBN 9782204135023.) Comment notre monde a cessé d'être chrétien. Anatomie d'un effondrement. By Guillaume Cuchet. (Paris: Points, 2020 [Éditions du Seuil, 2018]. Pp. 288. 8,80 €. ISBN 9782757877623.) Le Crépuscule du purgatoire. Le souci du salut dans les mentalités catholiques (XIXe–XXe siècles). By Guillaume Cuchet. (Paris: Points, 2020 [Armand Colin, 2005]. Pp. 448. 11,00 €. ISBN 978-2757881118.) Guillaume Cuchet is a professor of contemporary history at the University of Paris 1 Panthéon-Sorbonne specializing in the history of religions. Although Cuchet has been a prolific scholar over the past twenty years, his visibility has grown exponentially following his 2018 book provocatively titled How Our World Ceased Being Christian: Anatomy of a Collapse. (His pinpointing 1965 as the decisive turning moment—the year of Vatican II's closure—has been enthusiastically embraced by the Council's critics.) In 2020, along with a new pocket edition of that work, two other books were republished: a pocket edition of his first monograph surveying The Twilight of Purgatory (2005); and a revised enlarged edition of Faire de l'histoire religieuse dans une société sortie de la religion (Doing Religious History in a Society Exiting from Religion, 2013), the title playing on Marcel Gauchet's thesis of Western Christianity as representing a "religion of exit [or departure] from religion" (la religion de la sortie de la religion). In [End Page 378] 2021, Cuchet published a collection of essays (serving as a sequel to the 2018 blockbuster) posing the anxious question: Does Catholicism Still Have a Future in France? As Cuchet (b. 1973) arrives this year at his half-century mark, he is widely associated with contemporary anxieties about Catholicism's future fate, both within and beyond France. Although Cuchet's unusually broad range of interests resists synthesis, a useful entry point is the prism of cultural attitudes toward death. Cuchet's historical method is indebted to Philippe Ariès (1914–84), a towering postwar medievalist who applied the Annales school's "histoire des mentalités" (lit. "history of attitudes") to the history of private life. In a recent interview, Cuchet invoked Ariès's work, most notably The Hour of Our Death: The Classic History of Western Attitudes Toward Death over the Last One Thousand Years (1977; tr. 1980). "Religious history," remarked Cuchet, "is, from one perspective, a derivative of the history of attitudes toward death, and hence also towards life." ("I came to history by way of Philippe Ariès," he quipped, "and I have kept the birthmarks!") This entry point helps synthesize Cuchet's varied interests—from his 2002 doctoral dissertation on attitudes toward the doctrine of purgatory from 1850–1935 to his study a decade later of nineteenth-century spiritualism, seances, and the use of table-turning to access spirits of the deceased. (See Cuchet, Les Voix d'outre-tombe: Tables tournantes, spiritisme et société au XIXe siècle [Voices from Beyond the Grave: Turning-Tables, Spiritualism, and Society in the 19th Century], 2012.) Cuchet's most recent monograph surveys A History of Religious Sentiment in the Nineteenth Century: Religion, Culture and Society in France, 1830–1880. While the title calls to mind Henri Bremond's monumental twelve-volume A Literary History of Religious Sentiment in France from the End of the Wars of Religion Up To the Present (1916–1936), it also evokes one of the most influential novels of the nineteenth century, Gustave Flaubert's Sentimental Education (1869). Beginning already with the late-eighteenth-century reaction against Enlightenment rationalism (and industrial revolution), Romanticism exalted sentiment, feeling, and emotion. (Flaubert famously noted in 1864: "I want to write the moral history [l'histoire morale] of the men of my generation—'sentimental' [« sentimentale »] would be more accurate.") Arguing against common conceptions of the nineteenth century as an...

,,Heilsgeschichte“ im Mittelalter: was meinen Petrus Damiani und Rupert von Deutz mit historia salutis?1

Abstract Referring to medieval conceptions of history modern medievalists currently employ the terms ,,Heilsgeschichte,“ ,,salvation history,“ ,,history of salvation,“ ,,histoire du Salut”, or similar ones, whereas the seemingly corresponding term historia salutis is extremely rare in the medieval texts: among the Latin Christian authors up to 1200 only two, Petrus Damiani and Rupert of Deutz use it – not often ‐ in their writings. My contribution explores the meaning these authors attach to the term, and takes a look at its patristic precedents. Different from the modern concept, the medieval historia salutis does not associate salvation with history as a general process, but with the life and deeds – the history ‐ of Jesus Christ as a person.

Review: Modern Architecture and Climate: Design before Air Conditioning

Review: <i>Modern Architecture and Climate: Design before Air Conditioning</i>

Skin and Silence in Selected Maghrebian Queer Films

ABSTRACT The main premise of this article is that Maghreb cinema cannot openly represent queerness. Nadia El Fani's Bedwin Hacker (2003), Raja Amari's Al Dowaha (Buried Secrets) (2009) and Abdellah Taïa's L’Armée du Salut (The Salvation Army) (2013) represent queerness as muted, silent and secret, performed in darkness and shadowy spaces. Drawing on cultural theories of the significance of skin, I argue that in the selected films, skin and silence are expressive screens on and through which queerness is disclosed and from which it can be viewed and also interpreted. As sites of interrogation and expressive screens of queerness, skin creates layered visual narratives that challenge the silencing of queer sexualities in the Maghreb. Skin is a surface from where and through which forms of embodied self-fashioned resistance against racialised, gendered and sexual norms are performed.

La vie lente by Abdellah Taïa

Reviewed by: La vie lente by Abdellah Taïa Walter S. Temple Taïa, Abdellah. La vie lente. Seuil, 2019. ISBN 978-2-02-142183-5. Pp. 267. Scenes of intercultural exchange, particularly in contemporary "French" contexts, provide us with an opportunity to question the human condition in a society of contradictions. Taïa's oeuvre can be qualified in part as an outsider narrative, and his latest novel propels us further into the complex realities of the immigrant's plight. Divided into nine sections, La vie lente presents as a journey of passion, racial inequality, and political overture. We recall that an interwoven and overarching motif in the writer's work is the tension that resides at the divide between the north and south. Such tensions, as the author suggests, are often exacerbated when issues of sexuality, belonging, and social norms complicate the character's search for self. The writer echoes the poetics of his earlier writings by returning to these thematics. He also reminds readers of the vulnerabilities that are synonymous with transcultural engagement. In the wake of the 2015 terrorist attacks in Paris, the French capital experienced a new wave of anxiety, "les gens en France n'étaient plus les mêmes" (18). What is particularly sobering to examine throughout this novel in this regard is the relationship between Mounir, a Moroccan immigrant, and Madame Marty, an aged pauvre française, who also suffers from the perils of life at the margins, despite her presumed superiority. The racial tensions that continue to characterize Taïa's France are established in the first chapter through the voice of the older French woman. Speaking to Mounir, who occupies the apartment below hers on the rue de Turenne, she asserts: "J'ai peur de toi. Tu es arabe, j'ai peur de toi" (17). Yet the Parisian-Moroccan attributes the octogenarian's anxiety to the recent attacks, refusing to believe that she could be a blatant racist. Both Mounir and Madame Marty fall victim to the cultural milieu they inhabit. The links among the various characters become increasingly apparent as we locate what is, for the author, a shared social condition. In a curious parallel to Taïa's debut novel, L'armée du salut (2009), the reader discovers that Manon, the older sister of Madame Marty, was forced to sell her body during the Second World War. Such portraiture recalls an earlier (and younger) "Abdellah" in which the traveler also appears to use his body as a means of survival. Further yet, the implied freedoms associated with France continue to resound in Taïa's imaginary and are embodied here in the character of Majdouline, Mounir's cousin who dreams of a different kind of life, "Je veux que tu m'aides à échapper au piège du mariage, au piège de la liberté" (225). La vie lente poses as a mechanism that permits the writer to escape the egregious silence that haunts these characters. The eighth section, titled "Fin (1)," opens with a somber [End Page 214] and revealing tonality, "Tu veux vivre? Ne reviens pas au silence" (243). The hysteria that qualifies Mounir's existence is perhaps remedied through the confrontation of what is for Taïa a series of unknown truths. This text is therefore a veritable roman de la rupture. Walter S. Temple Utah Valley University Copyright © 2020 American Association of Teachers of French

Heteroglossic Masculinities: Multilingualism in Arm\xe9e du salut and Princesa

The article examines the literary representation of masculinities in the context of border crossings in the Mediterranean area and specifically the relationship between multilingualism and gender identity. The discussion is based on comparative close-readings of two auto-fictional novels which embody border crossings in the form of migration, globalization and (de)colonization: L’armée du salut (2006) by Abdellah Taïa and Princesa (1994) by Fernanda Farias de Albuquerque. The article argues that the novels’ representations of multilingualism and complex gender identities can be fruitfully understood in terms of Bakhtin’s notion of heteroglossia, and that both gender and linguistic practices shift as they are recontextualized socially and geographically.

Translating Desire: The Multilingual and Inter-Artistic Practice of Abdellah Taïa

Purportedly the first openly gay writer published in Morocco, Abdellah Taia has become a name to reckon within the French literary landscape he has made his adopted home. His largely autobiographical work follows in a tradition of the Francophone Moroccan récit exemplified by his clearest precursor, Rachid O., while also demonstrating a frankness and a concern with contemporary issues such as migration and the Maghrebi transition to individualism that is clearly his own. His star has further risen with English translations of his work and his film L'Armée du salut, adapted from his novel of the same name. This article examines his claims to being the first to come out in a literature that, as Jarrod Hayes and other scholars have emphasized, was already steeped in homoeroticism. It focuses upon the issue of language difference, noting the ways in which French and Arabic circumscribe queer identity formation with pronounced socioeconomic repercussions and also by taking into consideration Taïa's desire to move between literary and cinematic languages. Linguistic identity, it argues, takes on its greatest importance at the moment of any identity formation, particularly insofar as language itself so often operates as a metaphor for other identity vectors, such as race, gender and sexuality.

EFEITO DA APLICAÇÃO DE Brevibacterium linens NA MATURAÇÃO DE QUEIJOS TIPO SAINT PAULIN DE CASCA TRATADA

Brevibacterium linens (B. linens) são predominantes na casca de queijos como Gruyère, Limburgo, Reblochon, Port du Salut e Saint Paulin. No entanto, o queijo tipo Saint Paulin fabricado no Brasil, não possui a casca tratada com bactérias e sim, apenas com uma solução salina e corante urucum, o que o deixa com sabor mais suave do que as variedades européias. O objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar a influência da utilização da Brevibacterium linens na maturação de queijos tipo Saint Paulin. Os queijos foram produzidos utilizando-se três diferentes tratamentos: controle, sem adição de B. linens, com aplicação de B. linens na casca do queijo por esfregaço e com B. linens adicionada ao leite destinado à fabricação dos queijos. Índices de proteólise e pH (próximo a casca e no centro do queijo) foram avaliados durante a maturação, nos tempos 1, 15, 30 e 54 dias, e a composição centesimal foi avaliada no dia 1 de maturação, em três repetições. A análise de pH e de composição centesimal, não indicou diferença significativa (p &gt; 0,05) entre os tratamentos. Os tratamentos com a utilização de B. linens apresentaram maiores índices de proteólise em relação ao tratamento controle. Assim, a utilização desse tipo de cultura adjunta B. linens incentiva a atividade proteolítica no queijo. Além disso, pode ser adicionada tanto no leite como na morge (solução salina) aplicada na casca do queijo.

‘Writing the self’ as narrative of resistance: L’Armée du salut by Abdellah Taïa

ABSTRACTThe purpose of this article is to explore how a textual analysis of the representational strategies in a literary work and its paratext can inform our conception of ‘resistance narratives’ in ways that sociology of literature cannot. With specific focus on Abdellah Taïa’s autobiographical novel, L’Armée du salut (2006), this article intends to demonstrate how the self-absorbed and the socially engaged can interrelate when ‘writing the self’. Moreover, a literary analysis of this interrelation points towards a reading of L’Armée du salut as a multi-layered voice of resistance: the novel is not only transgressing heteronormativity, it is also expanding the boundaries of so-called homosexual desires as well as displacing Orientalist conceptions of ‘Oriental sex’.

Ascidians (Tunicata) of the French Guiana Expedition.

Ascidians were collected along the shore of Iles du Salut and deeper on the slope in a program of evaluation of the biodiversity in Guiana. Most of the samples belong to already known species from the Caribbean area and Brazilian coast. The colonial forms dominate. The 6 new species have been dredged deeper than 50m but not found by SCUBA divers. In spite of an intensive sampling, the ascidian diversity in Guiana is low with 36 species recorded. This is the result of the abundance of sediment suspended in the water and uniformly deposited on all substrates which affects filtration rate and limits the settling of the ascidian larvae.

Islamic Movements Engaging with Democracy: Front Islamique Du Salut (FIS) and the Democratic Experiment in Algeria

The recent political developments in the Arab world, in general, and in the North African states like Tunisia, Egypt and Libya, in particular, develop new enthusiasm on the interaction between Islam/Islamism/Islamic movements and democracy; especially with the institutions and practices of western liberal democracy. Islamist groups have become a critical factor in the larger politics of those states and the central focus of any serious debate on political liberalisation and democratisation in the Arab world. The 1990s witnessed a revival of Islamism in the political sphere through the increasing participation of Islamists in elections and the democratic process. It has raised some new debates on the fundamental question of the compatibility of Islam and democracy. Such debates, at times, challenged the dominant western pre-supposition that Islam and democracy are incompatible. It has become crucial in the widely discussed ‘post September 11’ global context where many groups in the west project Islamism and Islamic movements as the biggest threat to modern liberal–democratic states. The Algerian experiment with democracy in the late 1980s, which this article discusses in detail, was the first such experiment in the Arab world where Islamists actively participated in a liberal democratic election process. The developments that had taken place after the victory of Islamists in this election were crucial in framing an Islamist approach to democracy thereafter.

Investigating a Disappearance: Multilingualism and Language Erasure in Assia Djebar’s La Disparition de la langue française

The title of Assia Djebar's 2003 novel La Disparition de la langue francaise provocatively announces the of the French language. Its content, which details the unsolved of its protagonist, offers readers a deceptively simple parallel between two disappearances. Berkane, the hero of the story and one of its narrators, disappears from a roadside in Kabylia in the same way that the French language disappeared from Algeria in the 1990s. These parallel disappearances could be said to evoke, in the case of the former, the murders of many Francophone intellectuals during the violence of the decennie noire, and in the case of the latter, strict Algerian Arabization laws that sought to replace French with Arabic in classrooms, in the media, and in official government business. However, this deceptive parallel yields an oversimplified interpretation, both of the novel's complexity and of the historical and linguistic situation in Algeria. Berkane does not necessarily represent the French language, nor is the French language precisely (or exclusively) what is disappearing in Djebar's Algeria. La Disparition begins with Berkane, a budding author, preparing to return to Algeria for the first time after over twenty years as a self-described exile in Paris. His fateful return takes place in 1990, mere months before the electoral victory of the Front Islamique du Salut would set off the decade of violence commonly referred to as the decennie noire. The narrative composition used to recount this return is structurally complex. Berkane's initial bittersweet homecoming is described, in a premiere partie, by two narrators who alternate in numbered subsections: Berkane and an unidentified narrator who uses the third person to refer to the protagonist. In this portion of the narrative, readers learn that Berkane has left behind a French lover, Marise, in Paris, but upon his return to Algiers he develops a relationship with Nadjia, an Algerian woman. A deuxieme partie exclusively uses Berkane's first-person narration and excerpts from his autobiographical writings to recount aspects of his childhood that seemed to have been buried during his time in Paris: his years in a French colonial school, his resistance to colonialism, and his subsequent time in a French prison as an adolescent. Yet the joy of his return is mixed with nostalgia for an Algeria that seems to be disappearing before his eyes, metonymized through the Casbah and its state of increasing physical disrepair. The novel ends with a troisieme partie, in which Berkane vanishes after embarking on a quest to relocate the centers in Kabylia where he was detained by French troops, an experience he planned to include in the autobiography he was writing. This closing section of (exclusively third-person) narration follows the reaction of three of those closest to Berkane: his journalist brother Driss, Marise, and Nadjia. Berkane's disappearance, however, remains unsolved. Not only do readers not know whether he has run away, been killed, or been kidnapped, they are also left in suspense as to the meaning of this disappearance. Who, or what, has really disappeared? Despite the novel's title, the putative of French is not extensively discussed in the text. One possible referent of this could be Algeria's Arabization legislation. After decades of French domination of the education system and suppression of the Arabic language, Algeria constitutionalized Arabic as its national language and declared that it would become the sole official language of education. However, the difficulty of implementing necessary educational reforms meant that after independence many Algerians were still educated in French. While French flourished in practice, in theory politicians described the disappearance of French from the Algerian curriculum as an ultimate goal that had yet to be achieved. Ahmed Taleb-Ibrahimi, education minister from 1965 to 1970, stated that Arabization would aneantir ce melange d'elements de cultures disparates, et souvent contradictoires, heritees des epoques de decadence et de la periode coloniale, de lui substituer une culture nationale unifiee, liee intimement a notre passe et a notre civilisation arabo-islamique (63). …

Jean Epstein: Corporeal Cinema and Film Philosophy par Christophe Wall-Romana

of immigration and selfish excess come to the fore.While his character is less endearing in this regard, such behavior reflects a shift in the power dynamics of Arab-European relations—here in the context of a homosexual and transnational love affair.Although filmic adaptations of literary works quite often result in a compromise between the elasticity of literature and the rigidity of the camera’s lens, L’armée du salut demonstrates that the subjective tonality of the novel translates into a powerful, convincing, and thought-provoking piece of cinema. Even though the film’s sudden ending elucidates Taïa’s creative vision, many questions remain unanswered, inciting reflection. University of Miami Walter Shawn Temple Wall-Romana, Christophe. Jean Epstein: Corporeal Cinema and Film Philosophy. Manchester: Manchester UP, 2013. ISBN 978-0-7190-8623-6. Pp. 224. $95. Foundational to avant-garde interwar film culture and to philosophical approaches to film after World War II were the writings of Jean Epstein (1897–1953), the noted proponent of photogénie for whom the close-up and altered motion (reverse, fast, slow) could reinvigorate a social body exhausted by warfare and excessive stimuli (19) to reveal realms of experience otherwise inaccessible. Echoing L’Esprit Nouveau’s modernist call to order (171), Epstein’s early books La poésie d’aujourd’hui and Bonjour cinéma (both 1921) not only helped shape photographic and editing styles when silentera poetic experimentalism in France was at its peak; by exposing the enmeshed character of time, movement, and the sensate body onscreen, they unveiled, in WallRomana ’s far-reaching reassessment,a“corporeal subconscious”(28) that later informed the film phenomenology of Edgar Morin, Jean-Luc Godard, and Gilles Deleuze. Thanks to historian Richard Abel, English-language readers had been aware since the 1980s of Epstein’s stature as a theorist—a moniker Wall-Romana contests—while protracted legal battles and poor distribution kept in limbo his directorial output, save La chute de la maison d’Usher (1928, after Poe). Yet Epstein, who had assisted luminaries Abel Gance, Louis Delluc, and Marcel L’Herbier, directed over twenty fictions, from the classic melodrama Cœur fidèle (1923) to the commercial throwaway Mauprat (1926, after Sand). Placing Epstein’s more artistically solid explorations of “borderline sensations and affects”(43) in a fantastic, Symbolist lineage,Wall-Romana makes a strong case for the director of La glace à trois faces (1927) and L’homme à l’Hispano (1932) as a pioneer of queer cinema in France, on a par with Jean Cocteau. Exemplifying Eve Sedgwick’s notion of the “glass closet,” Epstein’s œuvre “rather than simply evacuating and closeting homosexuality, insistently makes it a visible part of heterosexual construction”(80); the critic’s duty,then,is to show,beneath an apparently conventional “heterosexual matrix” (85), how films, and melodrama in particular, ultimately“queer”our vision (81).References abound to Epstein’s better-known French contemporaries Gance and Renoir, but also to Hitchcock who plays master of suspense 210 FRENCH REVIEW 88.2 Reviews 211 to Epstein’s art of “suspension” (54). Particularly revelatory in this painstakingly researched volume is chapter 4, “Brittany, Edge of the Modern World.” Epstein’s film essays on France’s savage coastal fringe presage the vérité techniques and collective authorship of Jean Rouch, as well as the rough location shooting of Italian neorealism. Ultimately,this documentary practice,which culminated in the immersive Le tempestaire (1947), may prove more central to our understanding of French film history than Epstein’s poetico-symbolist narratives.While Wall-Romana downplays the importance of screenwriter/actress/director Marie Epstein’s collaboration with her brother, his assessment of the film philosopher’s broader influence is robust: Deleuze’s “timecrystal ”(179) in Cinema I and II, Jacques Rancière’s account of narrative films as fables “thwarted” by moments of photogénie (182); and Ang Lee’s corporeal flights of wuxia fancy in Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon (197) owe not a little to the subject of this probing and exacting study. Johns Hopkins University (MD) Derek Schilling Literary History and Criticism edited by Marion Geiger Bahier-Porte, Christelle, éd. (Re)lire Lesage. Saint-Étienne: PU de Saint-Étienne, 2012. ISBN 978...

Clarifying the Concept of Salvation: A Philosophical Approach to the Power of Faith in Christ's Resurrection

In this paper, I develop a philosophical clarification of the statement “faith in the resurrection of Christ saves men from sin”, using some of the main arguments and hypotheses of my recent book, The Ways of Salvation (Les Voies du salut, Paris, 2010). I begin with some remarks on the theme of salvation in contemporary language and philosophy. I then sketch a conceptual analysis of the concept of salvation, first in its general sense, then in its specifically Christian one. Finally, I offer a hypothesis on the modus operandi of salvation, or at least of one aspect of salvation as understood by Christianity.

Hypogenic caves in France. Speleogenesis and morphology of the cave systems

Abstract Hypogenic caves develop by recharge from below, not directly influenced by seepage from the overlying land surface. Several processes of speleogenesis are combined, involving CO2 or H2S produced at depth. If the recharge from depth remains uniform, the growth of selected fissures is prevented, giving rise to maze cave systems with an upward development trend, which is defined as “transverse speleogenesis” [Klimchouk, 2003]. Hypogenic caves are much fewer than epigenic caves (i.e. developed downwards by meteoric water with aggressivity derived from soil). In France, as in the rest of the world, hypogenic caves were poorly recognized until recently because of their lower frequency, subsequent epigenic imprint often hiding the true origin, and the absence of a global conceptual model. However, about a hundred of hypogenic caves have been identified recently in France. The extreme diversity of hypogenic cave patterns and features is due to the variety of geological and topographic settings and types of flow. Thermal caves are a sub-set of hypogenic caves. Active thermal caves are few and small (Mas d’En Caraman, Vallon du Salut). Often, thermal influences only occur as point thermal infeeders into epigenic caves (Mescla, Estramar). In addition to the higher temperature, they may be characterized by CO2 (Madeleine) or H2S degassing, by warm water flowing in ceiling channels, or by manganese deposits. The Giant Phreatic Shafts locate along regional active faultlines. They combine all characteristics (thermal, CO2, H2S), due to the fast rising of deep water. The Salins Spring has been explored by scuba diving down to −70 m. Such a hyperkarstification is responsible for the development of the deepest phreatic shafts of the world: pozzo del Merro, Italy (−392 in). Inactive hypogenic caves may be recognized by their specific mineralization or by the presence of large calcite spar. Metallic deposits are due to the rising of deep waters that are warm, aggressive, and low in oxidation potential. Mixing with meteoric water generates Mississippi Valley Type (MVT) sulfidic ores. Iron deposits as massive bodies (Lagnes) or onto microbial media (Iboussières, Malacoste) making specific facies, such as “black tubes”, iron flakes, and iron pool fingers. Other frequent minerals are Mn oxides and Pb sulfur. In such low thermal conditions, calcite deposits occur as large spar in geodes or as passage linings. Other inactive hypogenic caves may also be recognized by characteristic patterns, such as mazes. The relatively constant recharge into confined karst aquifers suppresses fissure competition, so they enlarge at similar rates, producing a maze pattern. In horizontal beds, mazes extend centrifugally around the upwelling feeder. The juxtaposition of multiple discrete vertical feeders produces extended horizontal mazes. In gently tilted structures, 2D mazes extend below aquitards, or along bedding or more porous beds (Saint-Sébastien). In thick folded limestone the rising hypogenic flow alternatively follows joints and bedding planes, producing a 3D maze cave in a staircase pattern (Pigette). Isolated chambers are large cupola-like chambers fed by thermal slots. Thermal convection of air in a CO2-rich atmosphere causes condensation-corrosion that quickly produces voids above the water table (Champignons Cave). Sulfuric acid caves with replacement gypsum are produced by H2S degassing in the cave atmosphere. H2S oxidizes to H2SO4, which corrodes the carbonate rock and replaces it with gypsum. The strongest corrosion occurs above the water table, where sulfide degassing and thermal convection produce strong condensation-corrosion. Caves develop headward from springs and from thermo-sulfuric slots upward (Chevalley-Serpents System). The low-gradient main drains record base-level positions and even the slightest stages of water-table lowering (Chat Cave). Hypogenic speleogenesis provides better understanding of the distribution of karst voids responsible for subsidence hazards and the emplacement of minerals and hydrocarbons.

The Arab Opposition Molehill

AbstractArab Islamic oppositions have proven largely ineffectual in molding regime outcomes since the liberalizations of the 1980s and 1990s, although many continue to overestimate their potential for propelling reform. This article argues that a keen sense of the past is necessary when evaluating whether or not an opposition matters for political reform.Section Iintroduces noted scholar Juan Linz's notion of “semi‐opposition”—limited and “semi‐free” opposition groups that may sustain authoritarian regimes as much as repression. Using interviews and English and Arabic sources,Section IIdemonstrates historical correspondences between semi‐opposition and the Jordanian and Egyptian Muslim Brotherhood (MB) organizations concerning origins and support, ideology and approach to politics, regime tolerance and political environment, and political behavior.Section IIIdevelops Linz's hypothesis on the links between semi‐opposition and authoritarian persistence by examining how the MB marginalizes and raises the costs of dissent for other opposition groups and actors. The MB is briefly contrasted with the Algerian Front Islamique du Salut (FIS) opposition party of 1989–1992 inSection IV. Decidedly not a semi‐opposition, the FIS proved far more transformative than either the Jordanian or Egyptian MB, inducing centrifugal politics and the collapse of the Front de Libération Nationale (FLN) state that governed Algeria from 1962.

Qui est mon prochain? La construction du lien social dans les activités des Hospitalités de Lourdes

This article examines two important aspects of the hospital movement which assisted the pilgrimages of the sick at Lourdes, the Hospitalités of Notre-Dame du Salut at Lourdes, and the diocesan Hospitalités. It looks at their rôle in the reorganisation of diocesan communities, and in the creation of an image of the church of France as a union of its dioceses with the universal church; it also examines their search for a solution to an ethical problem, namely that of dealing with the lives of other people and the meaning of the concept of being ‘available’. What was their response to this problem, which derived from their situation of being a centre of pilgrimage where unknown people meet each other and where these unknown people have to find the appropriate relations for dealing with other people with whom they had hitherto no relations. This process is an interesting problem for study in a contemporary ethical perspective, in which there is much talk of the loss of natural bonds between people.

Comparison of the level of residual coagulant activity in different cheese varieties

The coagulant retained in cheese curd is a major contributor to proteolysis during ripening. The objective of this study was to quantify residual coagulant in 9 cheese varieties by measuring its activity on a synthetic heptapeptide (Pro-Thr-Glu-Phe-[NO2-Phe]-Arg-Leu) assayed using reversed-phase HPLC. The level of residual coagulant activity was highest in Camembert cheese, probably due to its low pH at whey drainage and the high moisture content of the cheese, followed in order by Feta=Port du Salut=Cheddar>Gouda>Emmental=Parmigiano Reggiano=low-moisture part-skim Mozzarella=Mozzarella di Bufala Campana. The high cooking temperature (50-54 degrees C) used during the manufacture of Emmental and Parmigiano Reggiano cheeses and the cooking and stretching step in hot water during the manufacture of Mozzarella cheese may be the reasons for the lowest residual coagulant activity in these cheeses. The level of residual coagulant activity was higher in Feta cheese made from milk concentrated by ultrafiltration than in conventional Feta.