Distress Of Others Research Articles

Toddler's reactions to maternal anger

Twenty-four mothers from a longitudinal study of mother-infant interaction re ported their toddlers' reactions to the child-directed and child-observed emo tions expressed by others. Results of χ2 analyses indicated that (a) self-concern and angry defiance toward others were more frequent, and concern for others less frequent, when anger rather than other negative emotions was expressed; (b) maternal anger toward the toddler was associated with an attitudinal measure of maternal responsiveness obtained during the prenatal period; and (c) more frequent maternal anger was associated with more frequent nonempathic re sponses when toddlers were bystanders to the distress of others.

Predicting rejection of her infant from mother's representation of her own experience: Implications for the abused-abusing intergenerational cycle

Child-battering parents are described in the literature as having three primary behavioral characteristics: a general difficulty with the control of aggression; an aversive, unsympathetic response to distress in others; and self-isolating tendencies. Here we review recent studies of young abused children which show the development of similar behavioral characteristics as early as 1–3 years of age. Surprisingly, these same three behavioral characteristics also develop in relatively maternally rejected children in normal samples. Taken together, these findings seem to suggest a continuum of psychological process from the experience of “normal” rejection to the experience of actual abuse by the parent. Studies of normal samples can then enrich our understanding of the psychological processes involved in child abuse. The second half of this article presents preliminary findings taken from our own ongoing study of social development in normal (nonabusive) families. Our study of the transcripts of 30 Berkeley Adult Attachment Interviews shows that a mother's apparent experience of her own mother as rejecting is systematically related to her rejection of her own infant (as observed in our laboratories) and at the same time to systematic distortions in her own cognitive processes (as taken from our study of adult attachment interviews). These distortions (idealization of the rejecting parent, difficulty in remembering childhood, incoherency in discussing attachment) are each significantly related to the mother's rejection of her own infant. Distortions in representation of an abusing parent may play a positive role in the perpetuation of child abuse.

The Status of Altruism

i. In The Possibility of Altruism, Nagel argues that an awareness of the benefit or harm an action will cause to another can in itself, without our having to assume the agent to possess any specific desires he might conceivably not possess, move an agent to perform or desist from that action. Hence his claim to have demonstrated the possibility of altruism, the possibility of acting simply out of regard for the welfare of another. I want to suggest that it is possible to argue for something a little stronger: not, perhaps, the necessity of altruism but at any rate something more than its bare possibility. It may be that something stronger follows from Nagel's own arguments, but that is not a possibility I shall explore. I want to focus upon the more specific question of our response to the distress of others. I shall argue that it is a necessary truth that to perceive another's distress as distress is to perceive it as prima facie a bad thing, as other things being equal something to be avoided or prevented. This does not mean that to perceive another's distress is necessarily to be moved to prevent it. What it does mean is that where someone is not moved to prevent distress, where they are unmoved or are moved in some other way-amused, excited, pleased or whatever, we must either deny that they are genuinely aware of the other's distress or find, in the special character of their view of that person in particular or the world in general, an explanation of why they should take what is prima facie an evil to be amusing, exciting, gratifying, or whatever.

Child Rearing and Children's Prosocial Initiations toward Victims of Distress

Maternal rearing behavior was examined in relation to children's reparation for transgressions and altruism as bystanders to distress in others. The children were 1 1/2-2 1/2 years old. Mothers were trained in techniques of observing. They recorded their child's reactions and their own behaviors in everyday encounters with expressions of distress in others (sorrow, discomfort, pain). Distress was also simulated by mothers and investigators. Mothers' empathic caregiving was rated during home visits. Mothers' affectively delivered explanations regarding the distresses their children had caused to others were associated with children's reparations for transgressions. Such explanations were also associated with children's altruism when they were bystanders to another's distress. Empathic caregiving by mothers was positively associated with children's reparation and altruism. Findings are discussed in relation to theories of altruism, conscience, and child rearing.

PRIMARY CESAREAN SECTION IN THE MULTIPARA

Abstract 1. Primary cesarean section performed in a municipal and in a voluntary hospital on 186 multiparous mothers with a pregnancy of 28 weeks or over were reviewed for the 10 year period between 1950 and 1960. 2. During this study period, 36,277 women were delivered. The cesarean section incidence was 3.3 per cent. The incidence among ward patients was 2.3 per cent, while that of the private patients was 4.4 per cent. The incidence of primary cesarean section in the multipara was 0.51 per cent or one in every 195 deliveries. 3. Hemorrhage stands out as the most frequent indication for primary cesarean section in the multigravida. 4. Fetopelvic disproportion was the second leading cause for abdominal delivery. The concept that multiparous patients rarely have fetopelvic disproportion has resulted in undue delay in performing cesarean section. A multigravida in labor, with an unengaged presenting part, should receive the same careful investigation as the primigravida. 5. The validity of our indications for primary cesarean section were critically reviewed. In 86.5 per cent of the patients, the operations were considered valid, 2.2 per cent were doubtful, and 11.3 per cent were not justified. Hemorrhage was responsible for 62 per cent of the nonvalid sections while fetal distress contributed 28.5 per cent. 6. A more conservative approach to antepartum bleeding in certain multiparous patients and the avoidance of oxytocin-induced fetal distress in others, should lower the incidence of cesarean sections in the multigravida. 7. The maternal mortality incidence was 0.53 per cent. 8. The gross perinatal mortality was 11.6 per cent. The causes of fetal deaths and the risks inherent in the indications for abdominal delivery are discussed.

Primary cesarean section in the multipara

1. Primary cesarean section performed in a municipal and in a voluntary hospital on 186 multiparous mothers with a pregnancy of 28 weeks or over were reviewed for the 10 year period between 1950 and 1960.2. During this study period, 36,277 women were delivered. The cesarean section incidence was 3.3 per cent. The incidence among ward patients was 2.3 per cent, while that of the private patients was 4.4 per cent. The incidence of primary cesarean section in the multipara was 0.51 per cent or one in every 195 deliveries.3. Hemorrhage stands out as the most frequent indication for primary cesarean section in the multigravida.4. Fetopelvic disproportion was the second leading cause for abdominal delivery. The concept that multiparous patients rarely have fetopelvic disproportion has resulted in undue delay in performing cesarean section. A multigravida in labor, with an unengaged presenting part, should receive the same careful investigation as the primigravida.5. The validity of our indications for primary cesarean section were critically reviewed. In 86.5 per cent of the patients, the operations were considered valid, 2.2 per cent were doubtful, and 11.3 per cent were not justified. Hemorrhage was responsible for 62 per cent of the nonvalid sections while fetal distress contributed 28.5 per cent.6. A more conservative approach to antepartum bleeding in certain multiparous patients and the avoidance of oxytocin-induced fetal distress in others, should lower the incidence of cesarean sections in the multigravida.7. The maternal mortality incidence was 0.53 per cent.8. The gross perinatal mortality was 11.6 per cent. The causes of fetal deaths and the risks inherent in the indications for abdominal delivery are discussed.