Disinfection Robot Research Articles

Design of UVC Surface Disinfection Robot with Coverage Path Planning Using Map-Based Approach At-The-Edge

In response to the issue of virus contamination in the cold-chain warehouse or hospital environment under the influence of the COVID-19, we propose the design work of a disinfection robot based on the UVC radiation mechanism using the low-computational path optimization at-the-edge. To build a surface disinfection robot with less computing power to generate a collision-free path with shorter total distance in studies, a 2D map is used as a graph-based approach to automatically generate a closed-loop disinfection path to cover all the accessible surfaces. The discrete disinfection points from the map are extracted with effective disinfection distances and sorted by a nearest-neighbor (NN) search over historical trajectory data and improved A * algorithm to obtain an efficient coverage path to all accessible boundaries of the entire area. The purpose of improved A * algorithm with NN is not to find the optimal path solution but to optimize one with reasonable computing power. The proposed algorithm enhances the path-finding efficiency by a dynamically weighted heuristic function and reduces the path turning angles, which improves the path smoothness significantly requiring less computing power. The Gazebo simulation is conducted, and the prototype disinfection robot has been built and tested in a real lab environment. Compared with the classic A * algorithm, the improved A * algorithm with NN has improved the path-finding efficiency and reduced the path length while covering the same area. Both the simulation and experimental results show that this approach can provide the design to balance the tradeoffs among the path-finding efficiency, smoothness, disinfection coverage, and computation resources.

Numerical model of the irradiance field surrounding a UV disinfection robot

Objective. New technologies, including robots comprising germ-killing UV lamps, are increasingly being used to decontaminate hospitals and prevent the spread of COVID-19 and other superbugs. Existing approaches for modelling the irradiance field surrounding mobile UV disinfection robots are limited by their inability to capture the physics of their bespoke geometrical configurations and do not account for reflections. The goal of this research was to extend current models to address these limitations and to subsequently verify these models using empirically collected data. Approach. Two distinct parametric models were developed to describe a multi-lamp robotic UV system and adapted to incorporate the effects of irradiance amplification from the device's reflectors. The first model was derived from electromagnetic wave theory while the second was derived from conservation of energy and diffusion methods. Both models were tuned using data from empirical testing of an existing UV robot, and then validated using an independent set of measurements from the same device. Results. For each parameter, predictions made using the conservation of energy method were found to closely approximate the empirical data, offering more accurate estimates of the 3D irradiance field than the electromagnetic wave theory model. Significance. The versatility of the proposed method ensures that it can be easily adapted to different embodiments, providing a systematic way for researchers to develop accurate numerical models of custom UV robots, which may be used to inform deployment and/or to improve the accuracy of virtual simulation.

UVC Sterilization Robot With Remote Wireless Mode and Autonomous Mode

Public concerns during the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic in Indonesia, which began in early 2020 until now, are of particular concern. It is caused by the SARS-CoV-2 which can be spread by direct contact such as aerosols. In an effort to prevent and handle the spread of coronavirus, especially indoors, it can be done by disinfection and using ultraviolet-C (UVC) light sterilization. The use of UVC light sterilizers generally requires the operator to move the tool in the sterilization process, this fact is a concern because the operator must ensure the area can be exposed to UVC rays. This issue is what the author created to be able to design a UVC sterilization robot that can be controlled by wireless remote mode and autonomous mode in the hope of being able to sterilize the room properly controlled by the camera and seen from the control area using assistance. The design of the UVC robot for wireless remote mode and autonomous mode using Arduino UNO as a microcontroller, ESPCAM-32 as a camera function that is integrated with wifi connectivity, HC-SR04 sensor to detect the distance of the tool with its surroundings, battery, navigated robot using the blynk application and the BTS 7960 motor driver as a motor for the tool wheel. The UVC sterilization robot was tested by testing the function of the remote control mode, testing the autonomous mode and the function of the UVC lamp. From the results of the tests and analysis performed, the UVC disinfection robot can work well in both the wireless remote mode and the autonomous mode. UVC robot sterilization can be used mobile and automatically and can make it easier for operators to carry out sterilization in the room.

Characterization of a robot-assisted UV-C disinfection for the inactivation of surface-associated microorganisms and viruses

Microorganisms pose a serious threat for us humans, which is exemplified by the recent emergence of pathogens such as SARS-CoV-2 or the increasing number of multi-resistant pathogens such as MRSA. To control surface microorganisms and viruses, we investigated the disinfection properties of an AI-controlled robot, HERO21, equipped with eight 130-W low pressure UV-C mercury vapor discharge lamps emitting at a wavelength of 254 nm, which is strongly absorbed by DNA and RNA, thus inactivating illuminated microorganisms. Emissivity and spatial irradiance distribution of a single UV-C lamp unit was determined using a calibrated spectrometer and numerical simulation, respectively. The disinfection efficiency of single lamps is determined by microbiological tests using B. subtilis spores, which are known to be UV-C resistant. The required time for D99 disinfection and the corresponding UV-C irradiance dose amount to 60 s and 37.3 mJ•cm−2 at a distance of 1 m to the Hg-lamp, respectively. Spatially resolved irradiance produced by a disinfection unit consisting of eight lamps is calculated using results of one UV-C lamp characterization. This calculation shows that the UV-C robot HERO21 equipped with the mentioned UV-C unit causes an irradiance at λ=254 nm of 2.67 mJ•cm−2•s−1 at 1 m and 0.29 mJ•cm−2•s−1 at 3 m distances. These values result in D99 disinfection times of 14 s and 129 s for B. subtilis spores, respectively. Similarly, human coronavirus 229E, structurally very similar to SARS-CoV-2, could be efficiently inactivated by 3–5 orders of magnitude within 10 - 30 s exposure time or doses of 2 - 6 mJ•cm−2, respectively. In conclusion, with the development of the HERO21 disinfection robot, we were able to determine the inactivation efficiency of bacteria and viruses on surfaces under laboratory conditions.

Development of a UVC-based disinfection robot

PurposeThe disinfection robot developed by the authors and team focuses on achieving fast and precise disinfection under a given or specific disinfection zone. This looks to solve problems with traditional robots that pay less attention to the level, efficiency and zones of disinfection. To effectively support and guarantee normal running for the whole system, a digital twin system is applied to the disinfection robot. This study aims to achieve fast, precise and thorough disinfection via the developed mobile robot.Design/methodology/approachThe designed robot is composed primarily of the following three parts: a mobile platform, a six-axis robotic arm and a ultraviolet-C (UVC) LED array. The UVC LED array is installed on the end-effector to achieve large-scale, precise manipulation. The adoption of all types of advanced sensors and the development of an intuitive and user-friendly client interface are helpful in achieving remote control, path planning, data monitoring and custom disinfection functions.FindingsDisinfection of three different locations in the laboratory was performed; the dosage distribution of the surface as radiated by the UVC robot was detected; and feasibility of development was validated.Originality/valueThe developed disinfection robot achieved fast, precise and thorough disinfection for a given or specific disinfection zone.

Design and construction of a multifunctional disinfection robot

This paper proposes a robot designed for automated routine or emergency disinfection in closed premises. The robot is related to the combined type robots. The robot consists of two functional parts: a universal mobile platform (lower part) and a disinfector (upper part), which, if necessary, can be freely moved by personnel on 4 wheels. In the initial position, the upper part of the disinfection robot is at the charging station. The mobile robot drives up to the disinfector, «hooks» it (puts it on itself) and moves along the planned route. The upper part of the disinfector will have its own independent intelligent system, separate from the mobile robot, which, when a person is recognized, stops liquid disinfection: in this case, the UV lamps turn through 180°, the cylindrical body closes and ventilation of the disinfected air from the enclosed space is turned on. In addition, liquid disinfection is only enabled when detecting beds, tables and chairs. With the spray nozzles located at a height of 400 mm, the disinfector can carry out a simultaneous combined treatment of rooms with equipment and furniture, including high-quality processing of the lower surfaces of tables, chairs and beds. To improve the functional characteristics of robotic disinfectors and to simplify their design, a multifunctional robotic disinfector has been proposed. It was found that the result is achieved by the fact that in a multifunctional disinfection robot containing a mobile cart with an autonomous positioning and navigation system, a disinfection platform with a disinfection liquid spraying system and UV lamps with reflectors installed on it, the disinfection platform will have its own autonomous control and power systems.

Potential Force Algorithm with Kinematic Control as Path Planning for Disinfection Robot

The disinfection robot is a virus-sterilizing robot that uses a nonholonomic robot model. Route planning algorithms are needed to allow disinfection robots to sterilize rooms in unknown areas and perform the task while navigating using a potential field algorithm. There is a problem applying the algorithm to nonholonomic robots: avoiding obstacles. The proposed route planning algorithm has been transformed into a potential force used to plan the path of disinfection robots in static and dynamic environments and environments with static obstacles. A potential field algorithm is used. There are some issues when the potential force algorithm is applied to nonholonomic disinfection robots in the area. Like any other robot, it takes a long time to avoid static obstacles. Therefore, this paper proposed a potential force algorithm that allows a robot to move towards a target point while avoiding static obstacles. The algorithm showed that a modified potential field algorithm with potential force could be applied to differential-driven robots for path planning. The disinfection robot could avoid obstacles with a faster response using this algorithm.

Robot-Assisted Ultraviolet Disinfector with Dispenser for Healthcare Related Services

Recently healthcare sector has attracted service robots to prevent the spread of infection. During COVID-19 pandemic, service robots have been able to reduce direct contact of front-line healthcare workers by separating them from direct exposure to infection. Robots have been used for delivery systems, disinfection of the exposed area, remote monitoring of patients, etc. In the present work, we have designed a disinfection robot that radiates ultraviolet C rays for UV sterilization of hospitals that kills 95.0% of bacteria within 20 second of exposure from a distance of 0.5 meter. UVC disinfection is more effective than disinfection by hydrogen peroxide, and with other chemical-based disinfectants like chlorine, chloramine, etc. Our designed robot can also be used as a dispenser in hospital delivery system for transporting medicine, laboratory samples, etc. Its use will not only increase logistics efficiency but will also avoid spread of Hospital Acquired Infections (HAIs), healthcare associated infections, eliminate human error, and allow health workers to engage themselves in their higher priority works.

Design of a complex of medical service robots and analysis of transmission characteristics of drives

The article describes a complex of robots designed and manufactured at the Institute of Mechanics and Machine Science for a hospital environment, consisting of a transport robot and two functional robots: assistant robot and a disinfection robot. The assistant robot is designed to measure temperature and blood pressure, automate the transportation of medicines, bed linen, food, etc. using a transport robot. With the help of a scissor mechanism the assistant robot is able to adjust the height of the trays, devices for measuring temperature and blood pressure. The disinfection robot is designed to automate disinfection in enclosed spaces. UV lamps with rotating 180 degrees reflectors, allow the disinfection robot to work in two modes: direct irradiation of the room with ultraviolet light and air recycling. There is also a mode of spraying disinfectant liquid. The article describes the design of a transport robot, an assistant robot and a disinfection robot, and shows the results of experimental studies.

UVC-PURGE: A Novel Cost-Effective Disinfection Robot for Combating COVID-19 Pandemic.

During the COVID-19 pandemic, surface disinfection using prevailing chemical disinfection methods had several limitations. Due to cost-inefficiency and the inability to disinfect shaded places, static UVC lamps cannot address these limitations properly. Moreover, the average market price of the prevailing UVC robots is huge, approximately 55,165 USD. In this research firstly, a requirement elicitation study was conducted using a semi-structured interview approach to reveal the requirements to develop a cost-effective UVC robot. Secondly, a semi-autonomous robot named UVC-PURGE was developed based on the revealed requirements. Thirdly, a two-phased evaluation study was undertaken to validate the effectiveness of UVC-PURGE to inactivate the SARS-CoV-2 virus and the capability of semi-autonomous navigation in the first phase and to evaluate the usability of the system through a hybrid approach of SUPR-Q forms and subjective evaluation of the user feedback in the second phase. Pre-treatment swab testing revealed the presence of both Gram-positive and Gram-Negative bacteria at 17 out of 20 test surfaces in the conducted tests. After the UVC irradiation of the robot, the microbial load was detected in only 2 (1D and 1H) out of 17 test surfaces with significant reductions (95.33% in 1D and 90.9% in 1H) of microbial load. Moreover, the usability evaluation yields an above-average SUPR-Q score of 81.91% with significant scores in all the criteria (usability, trust, loyalty, and appearance) and the number of positive themes from the subjective evaluation using thematic analysis is twice the number of negative themes. Additionally, compared with the prevailing UVC disinfection robots in the market, UVC-PURGE is cost-effective with a price of less than 800 USD. Moreover, small form factor along with the real time camera feedback in the developed system helps the user to navigate in congested places easily. The developed robot can be used in any indoor environment in this prevailing pandemic situation and it can also provide cost-effective disinfection in medical facilities against the long-term residual effect of COVID-19 in the post-pandemic era.

Target Recognition and Localization, Bounding Box Optimization of Disinfection Robot

Target Recognition and Localization, Bounding Box Optimization of Disinfection Robot

Design and Development of Multifunctional Autonomous Mobile Disinfection Robot against SARS-CoV-2 Virus

Design and Development of Multifunctional Autonomous Mobile Disinfection Robot against SARS-CoV-2 Virus

Standard for the Quantification of a Sterilization Effect Using an Artificial Intelligence Disinfection Robot.

Recent outbreaks and the worldwide spread of COVID-19 have challenged mankind with unprecedented difficulties. The introduction of autonomous disinfection robots appears to be indispensable as consistent sterilization is in desperate demand under limited manpower. In this study, we developed an autonomous navigation robot capable of recognizing objects and locations with a high probability of contamination and capable of providing quantified sterilization effects. In order to quantify the 99.9% sterilization effect of various bacterial strains, as representative contaminants with robots operated under different modules, the operating parameters of the moving speed, distance between the sample and the robot, and the radiation angle were determined. We anticipate that the sterilization effect data we obtained with our disinfection robot, to the best of our knowledge, for the first time, will serve as a type of stepping stone, leading to practical applications at various sites requiring disinfection.

Statistical Design of Overnight Trials for the Evaluation of the Number of Operating Rooms That Can Be Disinfected by an Ultraviolet Light Disinfection Robotic System.

Background and objectiveThe number of ultraviolet light disinfection robot systems that are needed for a facility’s surgical suite(s) and/or procedure suite(s) depends in part on how many rooms need to be disinfected overnight by each robot and how long this will take. The answer needs to be determined separately for each surgical and procedure suite because those variables vary both among facilities and among operating rooms or procedure rooms within facilities. In this study, we consider statistical designs to assess how many rooms a facility can reliably (≥90% chance) disinfect overnight using an ultraviolet light disinfection robot system.MethodsWe used 133,927 observed disinfection times from 700 rooms as a population from which repeated samples were drawn with replacement in Monte-Carlo simulations. We used eight-hour and 10-hour shift lengths being multiples of 40 hours for full-time hourly employees.ResultsOne possible strategy that we examined was to estimate total disinfection times by estimating the mean for each room and then summing up the means. However, that did not correctly answer the question of how many rooms can reliably be available for the next day’s first case. Summing up a percentile (e.g., 90%) instead also was inaccurate, because the proper percentile depended on the number of rooms.A suitable strategy is a brief trial (e.g., nine nights or 19 nights) with the endpoint being the daily number of rooms disinfected. Empirically, the smallest count of rooms disinfected among nine nights or the second smallest count among 19 nights are 10th percentiles (i.e., ≈90% probability that at least that number of rooms can be disinfected in the future). The drawback is that while this approach gives the probability of a night with fewer rooms disinfected, it does not give information as to how many fewer rooms may either skip ultraviolet decontamination or start late the next workday because disinfection was not completed. Our simulations showed that there is a substantial probability (≥95%) of at most two rooms fewer or one room greater than the 10th percentile with a nine-night trial and one room fewer or greater with a 19-night trial.ConclusionsBecause probability distributions of disinfection times are heterogeneous both among rooms and among treatments for the same room, each facility should plan to perform its own trial of nine nights or 19 nights. This will provide results that are within two rooms or one room of the correct answer in the long term. This information can be used when planning purchasing decisions, leasing, and technician staffing decisions.

A Smart Sterilization Robot System With Chlorine Dioxide for Spray Disinfection

The highly infectious and serious nature of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has highlighted the need for hospital space disinfection technology and the prevention of human exposure to pathogenic environments. This research developed novel chlorine dioxide (ClO <sub xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">2</sub> ) sterilization technology to reduce bacteria and viruses in the air and on surfaces. A smart sterilization robot system was also developed to spray disinfectants in operating theaters or patients’ rooms, designed according to the results of controlled experiments and the requirements for hospital disinfection. The system was built incorporated a semi-automatic remote-controlled module and an automatic intelligent disinfection function; that is, it could operate independently according to specific epidemic prevention strategies, which were implemented using a combination of Internet of Things (IoT) applications and a gesture recognition function. The elimination of Escherichia coli ( <italic xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">E. coli</i> ) bacteria on sample plates was 99.8 % effective. This paper reviews the evolution of various disinfection technologies and describes a disinfection robot system in detail.

Area mapping for autonomous disinfection robot

This article presents an autonomous obstacle avoidance robot with infrared sensors. With the help of these robots, the automotive industry has developed, using various types of sensors, both parking using ultrasonic sensor models, to Lidar sensors that map the immediate proximity of the car in real time. These sensors, through different trail simulations, adjusts the direction of the car to avoid various obstacles, or to avoid the following traffic jams.

Smart Cleaner: A New Autonomous Indoor Disinfection Robot for Combating the COVID-19 Pandemic

The COVID-19 pandemic imposes an increasing demand for service robots as a substitute for humans to conduct various types of work in contaminated areas. Such work includes logistics, patient care, and disinfection, which can reduce the risk of human exposure to the highly contagious and deadly virus. This paper presents the design and development of Smart Cleaner, which is a new cost-effective autonomous indoor disinfection robot. It integrates a wheeled mobile robot platform and a hydrogen peroxide atomization device for automated disinfection operation in the complex indoor environment. Through the system integration of various hardware components and software programming, a prototype of the disinfection robot has been fabricated for experimental investigation. A simulation study of the drymist hydrogen peroxide disinfection model was carried out to understand the diffusion of disinfectant in a room environment. The effectiveness of the developed robot was verified in practical scenarios, such as hospital, hotel, office, and laboratory. The effect of disinfection was validated by a qualified third-party testing agency. Results demonstrate the high efficiency of the developed disinfection robot dedicated to autonomous indoor disinfection work.

The use of a UV-C disinfection robot in the routine cleaning process: a field study in an Academic hospital

BackgroundEnvironmental surface decontamination is a crucial tool to prevent the spread of infections in hospitals. However, manual cleaning and disinfection may be insufficient to eliminate pathogens from contaminated surfaces. Ultraviolet-C (UV-C) irradiation deploying autonomous disinfection devices, i.e. robots, are increasingly advertised to complement standard decontamination procedures with concurrent reduction of time and workload. Although the principle of UV-C based disinfection is proven, little is known about the operational details of UV-C disinfection delivered by robots. To explore the impact of a UV-C disinfection robot in the clinical setting, we investigated its usability and the effectiveness as an add-on to standard environmental cleaning and disinfection. Additionally, its effect on Candida auris, a yeast pathogen resistant to antifungals and disinfectants, was studied.MethodsAfter setting the parameters “surface distance” and “exposure time” for each area as given by the manufacturer, the robot moved autonomously and emitted UV-C irradiation in the waiting areas of two hospital outpatient clinics after routine cleaning and/or disinfection. To quantify the efficacy of the robotic UV-C disinfection, we obtained cultures from defined sampling sites in these areas at baseline, after manual cleaning/disinfection and after the use of the robot. Four different C. auris strains at two concentrations and either in a lag or in a stationary growth phase were placed in these areas and exposed to UV-C disinfection as well.ResultsThe UV-C irradiation significantly reduced the microbial growth on the surfaces after manual cleaning and disinfection. C. auris growth in the lag phase was inhibited by the UV-C irradiation but not in the presence of the rim shadows. The effects on C. auris in the stationary phase were differential, but overall C. auris strains were not effectively killed by the standard UV-C disinfection cycle. Regarding usability, the robot’s interface was not intuitive, requiring advanced technical knowledge or intensive training prior to its use. Additionally, the robot required interventions by the technical operator during the disinfection process, e.g. stopping due to unforeseen minor dislocation of items during the clinical service or due to moving individuals, making it a delicate high-tech device but not yet ready for the autonomous use in the clinical routine.ConclusionsPresently, the UV-C robot tested in this study is not ready to be integrated in the environmental cleaning and disinfection procedures in our hospital. The single standard disinfection UV-C irradiation cycle is not sufficient to inactivate pathogens with augmented environmental resilience, e.g. C. auris, particularly when microbial loads are high.

Research on Path Planning of Mobile Disinfection Robot Based on Improved A * Algorithm

The traditional A* algorithm uses Euclidean distance as the heuristic function in the path planning of mobile disinfection robot. This method may lead to the generation of a certain number of useless nodes, which makes the search time longer. To solve this problem, this paper proposes an improved A* algorithm, starting from the heuristic function, adding additional value to the heuristic function, using the cosine value of the angle as the additional parameter. This method effectively reduces the comparison of useless points with the same F value, and significantly reduces the number of visited nodes. The simulation results show that the improved A* algorithm can significantly improve the path planning efficiency of mobile disinfection robot.

Feasibility of ultraviolet light-emitting diode irradiation robot for terminal decontamination of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) patient rooms.

To investigate the feasibility of using an ultraviolet light-emitting diode (UV LED) robot for the terminal decontamination of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) patient rooms. We assessed the presence of viral RNA in samples from environmental surfaces before and after UV LED irradiation in COVID-19 patient rooms after patient discharge. We analyzed 216 environmental samples from 17 rooms: 2 from airborne infection isolation rooms (AIIRs) in the intensive care unit (ICU) and 15 from isolation rooms in the community treatment center (CTC). Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) RNA was detected in 40 (18.5%) of 216 samples after patient discharge: 12 (33.3%) of 36 samples from AIIRs in the ICU, and 28 (15.6%) of 180 samples from isolation rooms in the CTC. In 1 AIIR, all samples were PCR negative after UV LED irradiation. In the CTC rooms, 14 (8.6%) of the 163 samples were PCR positive after UV LED irradiation. However, viable virus was not recovered from the culture of any of the PCR-positive samples. Although no viable virus was recovered, SARS-CoV-2 RNA was detected on various environmental surfaces. The use of a UV LED disinfection robot was effective in spacious areas such as an ICU, but its effects varied in small spaces like CTC rooms. These findings suggest that the UV LED robot may need enough space to disinfect rooms without recontamination by machine wheels or insufficient disinfection by shadowing.