Direction Of Foreign Policy Research Articles

The Provisional Government and “Chinese Question” in Russia in 1917

The article analyzes the changes that took place during the solution of the so-called Chinese question on the basis of the journals of the Interdepartmental Consultation under the board of the Chinese Eastern Railway, which have been preserved in the Russian State Historical Archive. The peak of activity in this direction first of the tsarist government, and then of the Provisional government was from the second half of 1916 to the autumn of 1917. Documents show that the labor of recruited Chinese workers was used in many sectors of the economy. But the most important it received in the railway construction. Russia's military operations had slowed down the colonization of the Far East. Under these conditions, the arrival of tens of thousands of Chinese workers in the European part of the country became a peculiar reflection of the eastern direction of Russia's domestic and foreign policy. The attitude toward this phenomenon in social and political circles has changed since the formation of the Provisional Government. While pursuing the course of tsarism in solving the problem of the crisis of workers' hands, the Provisional Government simultaneously made a number of concessions to the Chinese mission in Petrograd. In particular, its representatives were given the opportunity to become acquainted with the working and living conditions of the Chinese workers. Rising unemployment and protest moods in Russian society eventually forced the Provisional Government, shortly before its fall, to abandon the transportation of foreign laborers to Russia.

ქართული სამეფო-სამთავროების საგარეო პოლიტიკის ისტორიიდან

This paper focuses on a very interesting period in the history of Western Georgia, particularly, in the history of Odishi principality, when the inteligent and energetic Levan II Dadiani (1611-1657) ruled the principality. During his rule, the principality reached its highest level of development and gained a dominant position over other Western Georgian political units. The political structures were strengthened, the country's defense capability was enhanced, favorable conditions were created for economic progress, and the principality became the center for the preservation and revival of Georgian culture. The strong leader was never satisfied with his achievements and tried to unite the territory of Western Georgia and subordinate it under his centralised leadership. In this paper, the main directions of foreign policy in Odishi principality in the first half of the 17th century (Relations with Turkey, Iran, and Western Europe) are studied and important facts and events are analyzed. This paper will benefit historians, students, and a general readers interested in themes presented.

Ukraine – European Union: a New Phase of Relations in the Context of the 2014 – 2022 Russia – Ukraine War

Against the backdrop of Russian aggression against Ukraine and its global consequences, the paper analyses the evolution of relations between Ukraine and the European Union throughout 2014-2022 and the prospects for Ukraine's European integration. It highlights the peculiarities of the formation of Ukraine's European policy as a strategic direction of foreign policy and a factor of its decisive civilizational choice. The main stages and problems in the implementation of Ukraine's European choice are analysed. The focus is on investigating key events and phenomena in the relationship between Ukraine and the European Union at a fundamentally new stage, from the signing of the Association Agreement in 2014 to granting Ukraine the status of a candidate for EU membership in 2022. It analyses the attitudes of individual European Union member states towards Ukraine's European integration prospects, the impact of the Russian-Ukrainian war on the positive change in the EU and its member states' attitude towards Ukraine and its European aspirations, and concrete measures and actions by the European Union aimed at providing moral and political support as well as economic, financial, humanitarian and military assistance to Ukraine in its heroic resistance to Russian aggression. It is emphasised that Russia's full-scale invasion of Ukraine on 24 February 2022 not only united Europe and improved the perception of the EU in member states' societies, where the positive image of the European Union reached its highest level in decades, but also maximised Ukrainian support for European integration, which has become the key to Ukraine's resilience in the fight against Russian occupiers

Complying with Idealistic and Realistic Approaches: The Challenge for UK Aid to the Global South in the Post-Brexit Era

The withdrawal of the United Kingdom (UK) from the European Union (EU) gave rise to its associated batch of uncertainty about the direction of this country foreign policy. With this in mind, state and non-state actors attempt to predict the role and trend of UK aid deemed the main instrument of state diplomacy. In this vein, the body of work found in the literature addresses outstandingly the nature, mission, target, significance and size of UK aid to the global south in the post-Brexit era. This paper goes beyond this prediction and establishes that the challenge for the allocation of UK aid to the global south is to balance two approaches that defray the chronicle: one is to respond to poverty-related issues, this is to say idealism approach, and the other one relates to the UK economic and strategic interests, namely, the realism approach. The combination of these two approaches is continual, UK policymakers abiding by this trend. It is then a challenge for UK aid to the global south to concur with this reality. Keywords: Idealistic and realistic approaches, UK aid, global south, post-Brexit era. DOI: 10.7176/JLPG/127-07 Publication date: December 31 st 2022

Playing with fire? Entrepreneurs and the foreign policy of Jair Bolsonaro's Brazil, 2019–2021

AbstractThis article considers how Brazilian entrepreneurs, mainly from the agribusiness and manufacturing sectors, interpreted and reacted to Brazil's foreign policy during the first 3 years of the Jair Bolsonaro administration (2019–2021). Through semistructured interviews and content analysis of business primary sources, the article concludes that, despite significant heterogeneities within and between economic sectors, agribusiness and manufacturing entrepreneurs were more critical of than complimentary toward the nature and directions of Bolsonaro's foreign policy. The article also shows that business lobbying was successful in several issues, including keeping the project of South American economic integration alive; containing the close association between Bolsonaro and Benjamin Netanyahu's Israel; and limiting the economic and political consequences of Brazil–China diplomatic crises. Despite their achievements, business leaders were less successful in moderating and much less changing Bolsonaro's approach toward the environment and climate change, which constituted a significant predicament for the country's image abroad and played a crucial role in obstructing the ratification of a trade deal with the European Union. Still, these negative implications were not enough to produce any serious split between business groups and the Bolsonaro administration during the first 3 years of Bolsonaro's rule.

Selected Aspects of France's Foreign Policy towards the United States during Emmanuel Macron's Presidency from 2017 to 2022

The French diplomatic tradition has been going on for centuries and has influenced other parts of the world. One of France's most essential foreign policy directions is relations between France and the United States. It can be said to be friendship and hatred at the same time. The deep-rooted anti-Americanism in the French and the desire by Paris to return to great power status makes these relations even more difficult. In this article, I review France's foreign policy toward the United States from 2017 to 2022. In particular, I focus on analysing the aspect of superpower status, NATO membership and UN membership. I prove that these aspects have the greatest impact on Franco-American relations.

The Genesis and Evolution of Iran's Foreign Policy

According to the article, in the late XX and early XXI centuries, Iran's foreign policy strategy has suffered a number of changes under the influence of reforms in the country, and during this historical period, the political elite changed the direction of Tehran's foreign policy based on the current situation. The sources of Iran's foreign policy development and the mechanisms of its implementation will be explored. The foreign policy of Iran's presidents and the methods of its implementation will be analyzed, and their aspects aimed at protecting the country's national interests will be compared. The article states that the Iranian Foreign Policy Office tried to show the world community that it supports the idea of liberalizing international relations at a time when Tehran gave priority to the development of Tehran's foreign policy based on the ideas of realism.

The Arab-Islamic direction of Azerbaijan's foreign policy in transition: the main trends

The Arab-Islamic direction of Azerbaijan's foreign policy in transition: the main trends

Russia's Civilizational Choice: the Eurasian Alternative

The purpose of this work is an attempt to determine the role of the Eurasian factor in the civilizational choice of Russia. This scientific problem is considered by the author in two sections: philosophical-historical, involving an appeal to the ideological heritage of the Eurasians, and philosophical-political, allowing to assess the significance and prospects of the Eurasian vector as one of the key directions of Russia's foreign policy. The article defines the relevance of Eurasian integration for Russia, provides the provisions of the Eurasians that support the integration process. The prospects of Russia's Eurasian civilizational choice are examined both from a cultural and historical point of view and from the perspective of current geopolitical realities. The collapse of the Soviet Union is assessed as a natural stage of historical development necessary for liberation from the borrowed communist idea and for the formation of a pyramidal identity structure that requires the actualization of the national identity of peoples. One of the elements of this structure is a "supranational" identity, the formation of which is possible within the framework of the implementation of the Eurasian project. The consequence of the implementation of such a project may be the satisfaction of the public need for a new consolidating national idea, as well as the satisfaction of the demand for great power inherent in Eurasian psychology. In conclusion, it is concluded that the formation of the Eurasian Union is necessary from the point of view of national security in conditions of shifting the line of the civilizational fault to the borders of Russia.

Konstruksi Ide Xi Jinping dalam Belt And Road Initiative

This paper aims to understand the role of Xi Jinping's ideas and perceptions about China's rise in the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI). It released by Xi Jinping in 2013 as the one of ambitious policy to drive China's rise as the world power. He has a strong position in Chinese politics. In addition to leading the government, Xi is the military's commander-in-chief and has the potential to serve as president for three terms. His thoughts have even entered into the Constitution of the Chinese Communist Party. Xi's accumulation of power began to be juxtaposed with Mao's power who had a sacred position in society. Using constructivist approach, this paper attempts to analyze the role of non-material factor, such as the ideas of leader, in determining the direction of Chinese foreign policy. As the qualitative research, primary data obtained from the analysis of official government documents related to Xi Jinping's speech, the Chinese constitution, BRI, as well as official websites. Meanwhile, mass media news, scientific publications as well as other research reports consider as secondary data. It examines the practice of China's foreign policy is controlled and shaped by Xi Jinping's idea of China's rise. As a result, his ideas have played a role in changing the ways of diplomacy and the use of power that see BRI as China's global strategy, especially in China's relations with the US at the global level and cooperation with Southeast Asian and East Asian countries in order to streamline the BRI project.

The politics of grand strategy in an emerging state: a case study on Philippine diplomacy toward China

ABSTRACT Some observers expected a drastic change in the Philippines’ diplomacy toward China when Rodrigo Duterte said goodbye to the United States in 2016. However, after six years, the Philippines has remained an allied partner of the United States. The Philippines’ defense establishment bolstered its maritime domain awareness capacity thanks to financial and technical support from the United States. Department of Foreign Affairs (DFA) maintained the award from the Permanent Court of Arbitration (PCA) favoring the Philippines over China. This paper sheds light on the Philippines’ policymaking process by framing the politics of grand strategy in an emerging state. The grand strategy is an intellectual architecture to clarify the general direction of foreign policy shaped by multiple state actors who are not limited by the foreign affairs office. Neither asymmetrical power relations nor presidential power can dominate the direction of the Philippines’ diplomacy. The president, the DFA, and the defense establishment have developed institutional foundations to craft particular policies. Once they designed the grand strategy in the 1990s, successive policymakers did not remove it but rather incrementally changed it, especially in the 2010s, when they faced a series of assertive actions from China. In an emerging state with limited state capacity, Filipino policymakers do not always coordinate well with each other but still maintain a certain level of autonomy to create particular policies. Against the dominant framework of the weak state, this paper argues that Filipino policymakers demonstrate the state’s capacity to achieve their policy goals, even with limitations.

Iran’s Look to the East Policy in the Framework of Bounded Rationality Model

Doğu’ya Bakış politikası; İran’ın, Batı ile yüzleşmek için Doğu ülkeleriyle ilişkilerini güçlendirmesini hedefleyen bir dış politika vizyonudur. İlk kez Cumhurbaşkanı Mahmud Ahmedinejad Dönemi’nde İran’ın maruz kaldığı yaptırım ve izolasyonu kırmak amacıyla uygulanmaya başlanmıştır. Ancak Hasan Ruhani’nin 2013 yılında cumhurbaşkanlığı görevine gelmesiyle birlikte izlediği Batı ile yapıcı angajman politikası kapsamında Doğu’ya Bakış politikasının Batı’yı dengeleme yönü ön plana çıkmıştır. ABD Başkanı Donald Trump’ın Mayıs 2018’de Kapsamlı Ortak Eylem Planı’ndan (KOEP, Nükleer Anlaşma) çekilerek İran’a karşı sert yaptırımlar uygulamasına istinaden İran dış politikasının yönü bir kez daha Doğu’ya dönmüştür. İran’da daha çok muhafazakâr cephe tarafından desteklenen Doğu’ya Bakış politikasının, İbrahim Reisi’nin Cumhurbaşkanı olmasıyla birlikte yeniden İran dış politikasında öne çıktığı görülmüştür. Ancak Reisi hükûmetinin uyguladığı şekliyle Doğu’ya Bakış politikası, çeşitli kısıtlama ve çıkmazlarla karşı karşıyadır. Bu makalenin amacı, söz konusu politikayı dış politika analizi modelleri arasında yeri olan sınırlı rasyonellik modeli perspektifinden değerlendirmek ve bu politikanın esasen mutlak bir rasyonel tercih olmadığını, dış politika karar alıcılarının sınırlı alternatifler arasından en uygun olanını seçmesiyle oluşan zorunlu ve kısıtlı bir tercih olduğunu ortaya koymaktır.

Slovakia: Political Developments and Data in 2021

AbstractThe meteoric rise of Prime Minister Igor Matovič, the leader of the anti‐corruption movement Ordinary People and Independent Personalities/Obyčajní ľudia a nezávislé osobnosti (OĽaNO), which won over a third of parliamentary seats in the 2020 elections, ended abruptly in March 2021. He was forced to resign to save the governing coalition, agreeing to switch positions with Finance Minister Eduard Heger. Matovič, whose improvisational style of politics became intolerable for the coalition partners (and most of the public), fell victim to his decision to purchase the Sputnik Covid‐19 vaccine from Russia, which undermined the European Union's vaccination strategy and raised concerns about Slovakia's foreign policy direction.

The Role of Confucian Ethics in the Foreign Policy Directions of Modern China

The purpose of the article is to analyze the significance of the philosophical and ethical postulates of Confucianism for China’s modern foreign policy. To achieve this goal, the article required the use of theoretical research methods: analysis, synthesis, abstraction, as well as the formal logical method. The evolution of China’s foreign policy attitudes is studied from the standpoint of the historical method. The result was an analysis of the role and significance of the Confucian doctrine and, in particular, its ethical component, for the formation of China’s modern foreign policy doctrine. The example of the implementation of the policy of soft power shows the embodiment of the main ethical postulates of Confucianism in the foreign policy of the Chinese state under the leadership of Xi Jinping. The role of Confucius Institutes in the implementation of soft power policy is noted. The significance of the ethics of Confucianism for China’s modern international policy in terms of the country’s inclusive orientation towards harmonious and friendly coexistence with major partners on a global scale is revealed. It is concluded that a deep understanding of Confucian thought enriches the understanding of China’s modern foreign policy and, in particular, how the head of the Chinese state, Xi Jinping, is trying to appeal to a global audience.

Pragmatism of the Ideological State: Main Aspects of Armenian Policy of İran [İdeolojik Devletin Pragmatizmi: İran’ın Ermenistan Politikasının Ana Hatları

The South Caucasus region has become one of the important directions of Iran's foreign policy since 1991. Iran is closely interested in the processes taking place in the region. Because Iran is connected with the countries of the region by historical ties, neighborly relations and many common security interests. In the first years after the countries of the region regained their independence, analysts predicted that Iran would be able to establish closer ties with Azerbaijan in the South Caucasus. Such predictions were based on the fact that the Islamic Republic of Iran is a Muslim state and prefers an ideological approach to foreign policy. However, it soon became clear that Iran's foreign policy is undergoing a transformation. There are elements of the transition from idealism to pragmatism in the country's foreign policy. Contrary to expectations, Iran's relations with Christian Armenia began to develop better than Muslim Azerbaijan. The article examines the place of pragmatism in the foreign policy of Iran in the context relations with Armenia. At the same time, an analysis was made of the effectiveness of the idealist approach in the foreign policy of Armenia, as a secular state. The article proposes that, although the conceptual foundations of Iran's foreign policy are defined by the principles of idealism, they are pragmatic in their relations with Armenia.

Польское направление внешней политики Пржемысловичей во второй половине XIII века

This article is devoted to the coverage of the foreign policy actions of the Czech rulers Przemysl Ottokar II and Wenceslaus II in the Polish lands. The latter, having analyzed the political miscalculations of his powerful father, Przemysl II Ottokar, decided to focus on the eastern direction of foreign policy, hoping to take advantage of the internecine strife of the Polish princes from the Piast dynasty.

Women’s diplomacy in the XVI century France: the example of Louise of Savoy

This article is dedicated to researching the women's diplomacy in France in the first half of the XVI century from the perspective of gender history. Despite the fact that ambassadorial offices were mostly occupied by men, women could still perform as diplomats both officially and informally. The image of a woman as a politician is revealed on the example of diplomatic activity of Duchess of Angoulême Louise de Savoy, mother of Francis I de Valois. The article determines her position among the power elites from contemporaries' point of view. The article also reveals the role of a high-ranking lady in exercising diplomatic functions and highlights the features of the official correspondence form of the king's mother. The main directions of foreign policy during the regencies of Louise of Savoy are determined. The role of royal women in exercising diplomatic functions in relation to the political aspects of making the «Ladies' Peace» in 1529 in Cambrai is considered. The author concludes that personality factors, political authority and personal relations played a major role in women's diplomatic work. In the conditions of instability of the French crown, Louise of Savoy manages to avoid the political and economic crisis in the country and create a unique precedent in the sphere of foreign affairs. This allowed her successors to expand diplomatic networks further by continuously conducting correspondence. Apart from concluding traditional dynastic alliances, diplomatic activity included negotiations, carried out by ladies either through trusted ambassadors or in person, signing peace agreements, and forming their own female diplomatic clientele.

Women’s diplomacy in the XVI century France: the example of Louise of Savoy

This article is dedicated to researching the women's diplomacy in France in the first half of the XVI century from the perspective of gender history. Despite the fact that ambassadorial offices were mostly occupied by men, women could still perform as diplomats both officially and informally. The image of a woman as a politician is revealed on the example of diplomatic activity of Duchess of Angoulême Louise de Savoy, mother of Francis I de Valois. The article determines her position among the power elites from contemporaries' point of view. The article also reveals the role of a high-ranking lady in exercising diplomatic functions and highlights the features of the official correspondence form of the king's mother. The main directions of foreign policy during the regencies of Louise of Savoy are determined. The role of royal women in exercising diplomatic functions in relation to the political aspects of making the «Ladies' Peace» in 1529 in Cambrai is considered. The author concludes that personality factors, political authority and personal relations played a major role in women's diplomatic work. In the conditions of instability of the French crown, Louise of Savoy manages to avoid the political and economic crisis in the country and create a unique precedent in the sphere of foreign affairs. This allowed her successors to expand diplomatic networks further by continuously conducting correspondence. Apart from concluding traditional dynastic alliances, diplomatic activity included negotiations, carried out by ladies either through trusted ambassadors or in person, signing peace agreements, and forming their own female diplomatic clientele.

Comparison of the CSTO and the SCO as institutions of international relations

The post-Soviet countries are one of the main directions of Russian foreign policy, and the problems of national and regional security are key to the current agenda. These issues are dealt with by several international organizations in the region, while their functions overlap and there is no clear coordination between them. As a result, it becomes necessary to set priorities for Russian diplomacy in relation to these organizations. The article compares two international security organizations - the Collective Security Treaty Organization and the Shanghai Cooperation Organization - in terms of their effectiveness as institutions of international relations and compliance with Russian interests. The comparison is made through the history of the formation and development of these institutions, as well as the adopted regulatory documents and ongoing projects of the CSTO and the SCO. The scientific novelty of the research is the preference of one organization over another, while the result of most such studies is a statement about the need to make efforts for their parallel and full development. The author of the article comes to the conclusion that it is expedient to give priority to the development of the CSTO. The conclusion is made on the basis of the original goals of the founders of the organization, the alignment of forces in them, the dynamics of their development, their institutional problems and the elaboration of their conceptual documents.

Сountering СOVID-19 as a tool for Hybrid Influence of Russia and China on Regional Subsystems of International Relations: European and Asian Dimensions

In the XXI century the system of international relations has undergone transformations, including non-traditional determinants. This research drew attention to the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on modernization of the policies of great powers, which began to use pandemic countermeasures as a tool of their influence on future post-COVID international order. The authors analyze the peculiarities of using “hard power” (economic pressure) and “soft power” (economic aid, cultural interaction), and sometimes a combination of these tools on the example of Russia and China in order to lobby their own position under the pandemic of COVID-19 in the relevant geopolitically close regions – Europe and Southeast Asia. This research analyses all above mentioned peculiarities based on chronological period – at the beginning of pandemic situation in 2020.
 It was found that Russia most actively used the effects of the beginning of global pandemic on the European direction of foreign policy, under the impact of energy factor and the formation of the image of “peacemaker” and the role of “messiah” in the region. In the study, Italy is an example of the use of hybrid influence from Russia, the spread of fakes and the presentation of the “weakness” of the EU at the beginning of the pandemic in a rapid political response to the threat. Southeast Asia became the region of Chinese foreign policy in counteracting COVID-19, where China’s “mask diplomacy” acts as a countermeasure to overcome conflict in the South China Sea, form a system of “subordination” and realization the idea of “community of common destiny”.
 The findings reveal that Russia and China can be characterized as states that have political regimes with special tools and mechanisms for policy implementation. Beijing and Moscow not only aim to strengthen their influence in neighboring regions, but also to oppose the United States. Analyzing political actions and mechanism that Russia and China used at the beginning of pandemic, the authors confirmed that both countries aim to use “vaccine diplomacy” as an effective tool for influencing the coronavirus international order.