Diplomatic Approach Research Articles

Australia’s international alumni engagement strategy: an approach from soft power to knowledge diplomacy

ABSTRACT Scholars have confirmed the diplomacy value and soft power influence of international alumni (IA), but the relationship between IA and knowledge diplomacy (KD) is under-researched. Meanwhile, there needs to be a change from the soft power framework to the knowledge diplomacy framework in international higher education studies to emphasise mutuality rather than dominance. This study explores the relationship and mechanism of IA and KD by document analysis of Australian governmental policies. This study examines and analyses the Australian international alumni engagement strategy and identifies it as a knowledge diplomacy approach rather than a soft power approach. This study also points out the mechanisms of IA and KD. This study informs the Australian government and other governments worldwide to better engage with their valuable IA groups.

Towards sustainable and resilient ASEAN-Korea economic integration 2.0

Korea and ASEAN are currently seeing a golden age in their partnership; their trade and investment relations are strengthening rapidly, and ASEAN has become a key player in Korea's diplomacy. However, there are a number of challenges in this relationship, such as Korea's high level of reliance on a single ASEAN member (Vietnam), Korean businesses’ relatively short history in ASEAN, and inconsistencies and ambiguities in Korea's diplomatic approach towards ASEAN. In order to overcome these issues, Korean entities could consider seeking local partners in ASEAN, spotting economic and societal priorities in national and ASEAN development strategies, and taking advantage of ASEAN's intra-regional integration. There are two areas, namely Indonesia's electric vehicle value chain and smart city construction, in which Korea's public and private entities are attempting to gain a foothold by adopting these strategies.

DIPLOMACY AND TRADE AGREEMENTS: A REVIEW OF NIGERIA'S DIPLOMATIC APPROACHES AND THEIR IMPLICATIONS FOR U.S. TRADE STRATEGY

This paper meticulously examines Nigeria’s diplomatic approaches and their consequential implications for U.S. trade strategy, aiming to elucidate the multifaceted dynamics inherent in international relations and trade agreements. The methodological framework employed encompasses an extensive exploration of pertinent literature, strict criteria for study inclusion, and in-depth techniques for data examination, providing a holistic perspective on the progression of trade pacts, alliances, and diplomatic interactions between Nigeria and the U.S. The results reveal a significant influence of diplomatic measures in shaping trade norms and legislations, reflecting mutual economic stakes and the consequences of diplomatic ties on trade resolutions. A comparative study with other countries was undertaken to analyze the efficacy of Nigeria’s diplomatic methods, revealing achievements and constraints in diplomatic maneuvers and approaches. The paper concludes that the consolidation of Nigeria-U.S. trade bonds is pivotal in fostering economic resilience and mutual development, necessitating adaptive strategies and integrative approaches in diplomacy and trade negotiations. Recommendations include the integration of environmental considerations in trade policies, developing adaptive trade strategies to navigate dynamic specialization in international trade, optimising financial resources, and constructing more resilient food systems. These proposals aim to fortify Nigeria-U.S. trade alliances, fostering a more inclusive, equitable, and sustainable global trade environment.

Indonesian Defence Diplomacy: France as A Partner in Military Defence Revitalization during 2019-2023

Having a strategic location between two continents (Asia and Australia) and two oceans (the Pacific and the Indian) gives Indonesia the benefit of becoming a leading actor in the region, especially within the ASEAN. However, this geographical location also poses potential threats for Indonesia, both traditional and non-traditional threats. This situation is made worse by the tension between two great powers in the Indo-Pacific: China and the US. Indonesia then needs to have a good military endurance capability, and even though the Indonesian Armed Forces’ personnel is not lacking, the total number of Indonesia’s military equipment is somewhat lacking. Understanding the challenge, Indonesia has been trying to modernize its weapon system by conducting military diplomacy to obtain the best cooperation in weapon system. Therefore, this paper will analyze Indonesia’s effort in defense diplomacy within the period of 2019 - 2023 and how France becomes a partner in the defense sector, by using the Military Diplomacy Approach, as well as analyzing the benefits and challenges of every step that has been taken so far.

Kitajsko-kazahskie otnosheniya skvoz' prizmu mirovozzreniya Drevnego Kitaya o miroustrojstve

The author proposes to consider the history of Sino-Kazakh relations in the context of the traditional model of ancient Chinese diplomacy, which has recently had an increasingly significant impact on the formation of diplomatic approaches of the PRC with the outside world. The article shows the historical causes of the phenomenon of the “Chinese threat” in Kazakh society, its impact on the current state and level of development of cooperation between China and Kazakhstan.

Conditional Support: Chinese Development Aid in the Caribbean

Abstract: In recent decades, China has emerged as a major economic power operating within the Caribbean, making the analysis of its foreign policy strategy in the region of paramount importance. This essay will seek to identify the ideology undergirding China’s foreign policy within the Caribbean, using these insights to analyze the effects of Beijing’s increased engagement within the region. This essay will argue that Beijing has sought to create close ties with a number of Caribbean states by launching a slew of generous development assistance projects, attaching conditionalities to these projects to effectively incorporate partner states into their export and ideological network. China views the Caribbean as a valuable political partner, as its proximity to the United States makes its potential alliance with China a prominent counterfactual to Western hegemony. To achieve this argument, I will highlight how China’s Maritime Silk Road Initiative (MSRI) has influenced China’s grand strategy within the Caribbean, as it seeks to incorporate the region into a broader economic network to challenge Western economic systems. I will then highlight how economic considerations influence China’s bilateral relations with a number of resource-rich Caribbean states, investigating the diplomatic approach China has used to increase its access to natural resources in the region. Lastly, this essay will investigate how China’s development assistance based strategy has impacted the Caribbean itself. This will cover both its negative and positive effects on domestic industries, while also exploring how China’s ambitious economic expansion has stoked social discontent in the region.

Sikap Indonesia dalam Penyelesaian Konflik Perpindahan Ibu Kota Israel dari Tel Aviv Ke Yerusalem di PBB (2014-2019)

The purpose of this study is to identify and describe the role played by Indonesia in resolving the conflict over the transfer of Israel's capital city from Tel Aviv to Jerusalem at the United Nations from 2014 to 2019. The research method uses qualitative methods with a literature study approach by accumulating various information from the results of studies. beforehand as well as reviewing official documents and mass media regarding the status of Israel and Palestine in the international system. This study uses the concept of National Roles analysis from K. J. Holsti. The research results show that Indonesia acts as a Bastion of Revolution Liberator or a state that acts to eliminate colonialism or anti-colonial attitudes and the same ideological principles maintain peace without using a desire for ethnic unity or a military approach. The conclusion is that Indonesia is still consistent in supporting the existence of Palestine with a soft power or diplomacy approach.
 
 Keywords: Anti-Colonial Attitudes, Ideological Principles, Indonesia, Jerusalem, National Roles Conception

Malaysia – Indonesia Conflict: In the National Interpretation 1963 – 2010

The people of Malaysia and Indonesia established kinship relations long before the two countries were formed which gave rise to similarities in culture, customs, and habits. However, in reality, the national perspective of each country is not always in line, thus triggering the ups and downs of bilateral relations between the two neighboring countries. Through this research, the examiners wish to gain a comprehensive understanding of the perspectives of the two countries' nationalities from geo-strategy, geo-economic aspects, socio-cultural geography aspects, as well as defense and safety aspects. . These aspects show a fairly high dynamic, as can be seen from the ups and downs of Indonesia-Malaysia relations between 1963 and 2010. To obtain an accurate analysis, data was extracted directly from leading information providers from both countries who have knowledge and experience. Knowledge of the object under study, such as former government officials who were involved in foreign activities, former soldiers who were directly involved in the confrontation and still have fresh memories of the war, as well as academics and researchers who have studied the confrontation. To achieve this, data from a number of Malaysian scientists were also sought. Realist and Liberalist theory as well as other relevant theories used in this research as. From the data analysis, the study reveals that geoscientific and geographical aspects are the main causes of the "tidal wave" relationship between the two countries. Moreover, the Melaka border strait has become a “critical point for the two countries, which have overlapping interests so that the Malaysia-Indonesia conflict will continue to exist. Therefore, the most optimal recommendation according to this study is to place the sea boundary in a "Status Quo" position or a "floating" position, but managed jointly through formal and informal approaches for the welfare of both countries. and culture through economic, Islamic, and military diplomacy approaches.

The Nepali Army in Public Diplomacy

While describing the approach of 21st-century Public Diplomacy (PD), scholars, theorists, and practitioners have highlighted that dialogue-based or two-way communication is the most effective way of informing, engaging, and influencing a foreign audience in favor of a country’s foreign policy. State and non-state actors are considered effective vehicles for conducting two[1]way communication. However, theorists, scholars, and practitioners have neglected the role of military power (hard power resource with soft power behavior as appropriate), which could be an effective tool of PD. In conformity with Nepal’s peace-loving and cooperative identity projected into the international system, the Nepali Army (NA), essentially a hard power instrument, has demonstrated the ability to behave as a soft power apparatus which can be tailored to a coherent public diplomacy strategy in favor of the foreign policy of Nepal. Most importantly, because of global outreach and people-centric activities, the NA is capable and suitable tool for effectively handling PD activities to enhance the dignity and image of Nepal on the world stage. To explain the proposition qualitatively, this article undertakes an empirical investigation of the secondary data on the NA’s global outreach and its people-centric activities. The findings of this article could be useful in broadening the “Public Diplomacy” theory, and subsequently as policy guidelines for the Government of Nepal.

Czechoslovak diplomatic dilemmas in regards to the Adolf Eichmann trial

This article aims to analyze the ambiguous diplomatic approach of Czechoslovakia towards the trial with Adolf Eichmann launched in Jerusalem in April 1961. Even though Eichmann was internationally seen as one of the unquestionable Holocaust perpetrators, the approach of Czechoslovak diplomacy towards his trial was not as supportive and cooperative as would normally be expected from a country severely affected by Nazi repression in the recent past. Due to the ongoing Cold War rivalries that put Czechoslovakia and Israel on opposite sides of the conflict, in the early 1960s, the bilateral relations of the two countries were strained and hostile. The disinclination of Czechoslovakia to cooperate with Israel on the preparations for the Eichmann trial by providing testimonies of his crimes, however, put Czechoslovakia into a thorny diplomatic position hence this reluctance could have been interpreted as an indirect backing of a Nazi criminal. Altogether, the situation escalated in an unprecedented diplomatic dilemma for Czechoslovak authorities.

Новый этап современной внешней политики Китая сквозь призму концептов “путь” (дао) и “конфигурации силы” (ши)

China’s diplomatic approach under Xi Jinping is notably distinct from previous eras. Instead of pursuing the road of peaceful development, China appears to have abandoned its self-positioning as a “ancient civilized country” and has grown increasingly aggressive in the international community. Western academics and journalists have even coined the term “war wolf diplomacy” to characterize this trend. However, the author contends that this transformation is unavoidable since China is in the process of discovering itself, which implies that it is modifying its foreign policy in response to the genuine demands of its own development, defining its diplomatic “dao”. One of the most significant aspects in this procedure is the “shi” and only by accurately assessing, following, and planning the “shi” can the aforementioned duties be completed more effectively and finally achieve the aim of successful rising. In this paper, the author not only discusses classical Chinese philosophical writings in order to select key points from the sages’ thought for analyzing and explaining modern Chinese foreign policy, but also demonstrates some of the more successful theoretical constructions of the Chinese school of international relations theory. The author begins the first part by debating the “Way of the King” and “hegemony strategy”, pointing out that currently China’s foreign policy applies both concepts, with the former principle assisting China in implementing the fundamental principal of “not solving international problems by force”. While the “hegemonic” strategy is largely utilized to give a powerful reaction to external challenges, as indicated by the rising number of (counter)sanctions imposed in recent years. The author wants to present a reasonable explanation for China’s change in foreign policy style in the second half of the paper. According to him, this change represents a sound strategic decision by the Chinese leadership to “act in line with the ‘shi’”. However, because the transformation is still in its early stages, it is not yet feasible to foresee the eventual conclusion, therefore the overall trend in China’s foreign policy today should be judged in a way that does not unnecessarily laud or discredit it.

Emotions and early modern diplomacy: The case of Iberian ambassadors at the Elizabethan court

Emotions underlie world politics and are essential to state actors’ strategies and exchanges. Considering the complexities of the early modern Anglo-Iberian relations and the diplomatic sources, it is possible to pursue a line of enquiry which analyzes emotions in foreign affairs policies. This paper explores the Iberian diplomatic missions to the Elizabethan court, applying the current research on emotions in diplomacy to the sixteenth century diplomatic practice and its conventions regarding emotional display. Early modern Iberian diplomatic correspondence reveals a collective dimension, conveying an official—rather than personal—emotional strategy on foreign affairs. Spain’s dominant geopolitical and economic circumstances favored a more aggressive diplomatic approach. At the same time, Portugal’s more delicate strategic position and the maintenance of the Anglo-Portuguese Alliance determined a diplomacy of appeasement. Sovereigns selected their envoys based on how their diplomatic skills and emotional behavior would suit the kingdom’s agenda. This diplomatic strategy allowed a collaborative and synchronized emotional behavior amongst state actors to emerge.

«ЖІНОЧИЙ СУЛТАНАТ» В ОСМАНСЬКІЙ ІСТОРІЇ: СУТНІСТЬ, ПРИЧИНИ ВИНИКНЕННЯ, ЕВОЛЮЦІЯ

The «Female Sultanate» was an organic component of the history of the Ottoman Empire, being a logical product of its development in the context of strengthening the power of the harem institution together with the persons who belonged to its circle of employees. The figure of the valide-sultan in this system mostly played the role of peculiar unifying center of the new model of power. At this time, the development of many negative trends in the political, personnel and financial components of the Ottoman existence, the growth of corruption and the weakening of administrative power in the person of the grand vizier and other officials. At the same time, the «Female Sultanate» played a certain stabilizing function in state administration and ensuring a single dynasty on the Ottoman throne. His separate important achievement was the initiation by the ruling valide-Sultans of the practice of establishing numerous charitable institutions. In the foreign policy sphere during this period, a diplomatic approach to solving problematic issues began to dominate, which was often based on the personal favor of the ruling sultans. The gradual departure from the harem model of state management was accompanied by numerous upheavals, but it was an objective and necessary process. This was due to the fact that the harem as a management institution had almost completely exhausted itself and could no longer effectively solve the challenges that faced it in the context of overcoming destructive phenomena in the economy and centrifugal tendencies in the provinces. Along with this, it would be incorrect to blame the «Female Sultanate» for the fact that the process of the decline of the Ottoman Empire began because of it, since most of the problems of its development began even before the onset of the specified period, and with its end, on the contrary, only intensified, as they were in the majority a logical product of the peculiarities of the functioning of the state for a long time.

Public Diplomacy in Regional Integration: Strategizing Policy Goals

Contributing to the growing call on integrated public diplomacy approaches, this study examines the priorities and opportunities of public diplomacy activities in regional integration and it addresses a literature gap on the most favorable public diplomacy approach that would give regional blocs room to take a more strategic role in policy communications. The study briefly conceptualizes public diplomacy and regional integration through an integrative strategic communication framework grounded in relationship building as an end goal of public diplomacy. The study suggests a reconsideration of public diplomacy approaches through a two-way communication to both domestic and foreign audiences. It reveals structural challenges to grounded engagements, dialogue and collaboration strategies of co-existence, understanding mutual interdependence and relationship building. Through a contextual analysis, the study expounds the view of public diplomacy beyond governments and to that which downplays globalization and reintroduces territory into its governance.

The Role of Defense Diplomacy in Enhancing National Security: A Case Study of Kenya (2012-2022)

Defence diplomacy has increasingly become an important avenue of engagement across countries. It aims at enhancing diplomatic capacity of a country. Kenya, since gaining its independence from Great Britain in 1963 has been engaged in defence diplomacy within the larger Eastern Africa region and beyond. With intensifying security uncertainty in the Horn of Africa, necessitating Kenya to consider increasing her defence diplomacy activities in addition to increasing her military expenditure on equipment and personnel inorder to address emerging security threats. This study is interested in establishing the role defence diplomacy has played in thwarting threats to Kenya’s national security. How, for instance is Kenya courting new partners in military diplomacy and trade. This paper also provides the structure of the proposed study that focuses on Kenya’s defence diplomacy approach within the Eastern Africa region and beyond. In the quest of unbundling the defence diplomacy phenomena, the following research questions were considered: In what ways has Kenya’s defense diplomacy promoted security in the East Africa region? Are there requisite policy and legal frameworks that guides the conduct of defence diplomacy? What future challenges can Kenya anticipate in its defense diplomacy processes?

Keraton Yogyakarta Cultural Diplomacy: Krida Mardawa as an Actor of Javanese Cultural Diplomacy in Introducing Cultural Heritage Value

Cultural diplomacy can be a way to strengthen state relations with the international community. Indonesia through the Keraton Yogyakarta has taken this method as an approach to enhance and establish ties with the destination country for cultural diplomacy. The Keraton Yogyakarta is known as an institution that maintains and preserves the Javanese culture of Yogyakarta. On several occasions, the Keraton Yogyakarta through Krida Mardawa. became an actor in Indonesian cultural diplomacy. This study shows the efforts made by the Keraton Yogyakarta through the arts division of Krida Mardawa in cultural diplomacy as well as promoting Indonesian culture abroad. This study uses qualitative data collection with primary sources and uses the approach of Cultural Diplomacy and Cultural Heritage Value theories, along with the concept of Cultural Institutions. In this study, there are findings that the Keraton Yogyakarta does not only carry out cultural diplomacy by promoting Javanese culture. but there are efforts to introduce the philosophical values possessed by Javanese culture to the international world.

INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION IN THE INVESTIGATION OF BRIBERY CASES AT PT. GARUDA INDONESIA

Bribery case at PT. Garuda Indonesia is a cross-jurisdictional corruption case involving several countries. The purpose of this research is to analyze the international cooperation carried out by the Corruption Eradication Commission (KPK) in the investigation of bribery cases at PT. Garuda Indonesia. The research method used is a qualitative approach with a case study method. The data analysis used is the theory of international cooperation in dealing with corruption, jurisdictional theory, and the concept of transnational crime. The results of his research show that the bribery case at PT. Garuda involves multiple jurisdictions, namely: Indonesia, United Kingdom, Singapore, Hong Kong, France, and Canada. KPK-SFO-CPIB international cooperation process shows a new format of cooperation because it is carried out by the anti-corruption agency with a parallel investigations format. KPK cooperates with the agency through the MoU and MLA mechanisms referring to international instruments, namely the United Nations Convention Against Corruption (UNCAC). Even though the platform has been created, there are still many challenges and obstacles due to differences in the legal system, language and time. KPK encountered problems when it wanted to cooperate with Hong Kong's ICAC, Canada's RCMP, and France's PNF. The keys to the success of KPK in this collaboration are the diplomatic approach, speed of coordination, accuracy in strategies of communication, and commitment, as well as trust and adjustment of cooperation mechanisms according to the standards of each country.

The Role of Edmund Muskie in American Foreign Policy towards the American Hostage Crisis in Iran (May 8, 1980-January 20, 1981)

The research dealt with the role of Edmund Muskie in liberating the American hostages held in Iran, as Edmund Muskie assumed the position after the resignation of his predecessor Cyrus Vance due to the latter's objection to President Jimmy Carter's policy and his failure to liberate the hostages. An intense diplomatic approach and it was an important element and an effective planner in his country's policy towards that crisis, the outcome of which was the success in releasing the American hostages held in Iran, but the issue of the hostages affected the policy of neutrality declared by Washington when the Iran-Iraq war broke out and this war led Muskie to follow a policy Contradictory towards Iraq is more like a formal rapprochement and then siding with Iran in an attempt to approach it in order to release the American hostages being held by it.

Analysing Knowledge Diplomacy and Differentiating It from Soft Power and Cultural, Science, Education and Public Diplomacies

Summary The purpose of this article is to explore the contemporary role of international higher education, research and innovation (IHERI) in international relations (IR). Using an interdisciplinary and conceptual approach, it examines how diplomacy and higher education scholars understand and label the rationales, strategies and contributions of IHERI to IR. The findings indicate that multiple terms are used, resulting in terminology chaos and confusion. The concept of knowledge diplomacy is proposed, defined and analysed as a comprehensive term to frame the role of IHERI in IR. The similarities and differences between knowledge diplomacy and related terms such as cultural, public, science and education diplomacy and soft power are examined. Issues that require further investigation are identified, with special attention given to the differences between using a knowledge diplomacy approach versus a soft power approach to understand the role of IHERI in IR.

The Alteration of the Philippines Foreign Policy towards China over Disputes in the South China Sea


 
 
 
 As one of the most protracted issues in the world politics, South China Sea (SCS) disputes have frequently sparked boiling tension among claimant states- China, Taiwan Vietnam, Malaysia, Brunei, and in particular the Philippines - one of the most assertive claimant states aside China. During the administration of President Benigno Aquino III, the Philippines managed to internationalize the case of SCS disputes and ultimately won a victory over China in the Permanent Court Arbitration (PCA), the Netherlands. However, when a government transition occurred from Benigno Aquino III to Rodrigo Duterte in 2016, those PCA credits appeared to be not followed up by President Duterte. This ensued due to the differences in views and political will between Aquino and Duterte on foreign policy. This article aims to unravel and explain on the Philippines’ foreign policy alteration towards China over SCS disputes under Duterte’s administration, using the concept of Realpolitik and Rational Choice to comprehend why President Duterte decided to seemingly abandon his predecessor’s policies. This research employed qualitative method - data collection was obtained from the secondary data and literature study, comprising written documents related to the Philippines foreign policy in responding to the disputes. The results showed that the reason why Duterte abandoned his predecessor’s footpath is because he assumed that the way Aquino applied such assertive approach is not effective enough in resolving this prolonged maritime jurisdictional disputes between the Philippines and China. In this way, Duterte applied a more considerate diplomatic approach to China as his rational choice in a sense that he would rather take cooperative instead of confrontational way of settlement in resolving the disputes of maritime territory over the South China Sea.