Digital Media Usage Research Articles

IMPACT OF DIGITAL MEDIA COMMUNICATION ON CHILDREN HEALTH: ANALYSES USING OPEN DATA BAROMETER’ IN EDUCATION SYSTEM

Digital media has emerged as the fastest-using medium among students especially in teens. In one click, we can switch from video to audio and from audio to web link. Today it is equally getting popular among children as adults. The research aims to examine the impact of digital media usage among School children and its consequences on their mental health. Communication which is a part of life, can also be fulfilled with the help of these technologies. Result in the absence of fixation, terrible rest propensities, and these are additionally the consequence of utilizing a lot of longrange interpersonal communication sites. We are annihilating ourselves self-step by step more genuinely. YouTube is currently the best site for all children. A quantitative research method was applied to observe the impact of digital media communication on children's health. This study shows that the effects of social media on students are adverse. The relationship between social media and unethical behavior was found positive. The present study was also conducted to search the effects of digital media on children. Quantitative research was designed applied to observe the impact of digital media communication on children's health. The barometer is used to take the online analytics of data of digital media usage by the under eighteen age group. In the end, our research concludes the significant impact of digital media on children's health as more children admit that they are addicted to digital media, and they face severe health and mental issues. They feel severe problems in sleep, and also they think studies disturb. Digital media, in short, make students or children lethargic and often lead to procrastination. A Research Design is made, so that cross sampling of Quantitative Research results is used to observe the effects of digital media communication on children's health. Qualitative research designs are based on activities, ideas, customs, and beliefs. Open data is the right to access data and information in real-time. With the help of Open Data analyses, we quickly get the result of users under 18 of age in social media. Hence, a particular question has also been answered about using social media for educational purpose to generate a precise link between the two. This analytics is also used in this regard. In a research method, we gather the cumulative data of how addict the young users are to social media. For this, we use different platforms such as You Tube, Face Book etc., which are popular among young children so as to incorporate in the educational system.

The Home Learning Environment in the Digital Age-Associations Between Self-Reported "Analog" and "Digital" Home Learning Environment and Children's Socio-Emotional and Academic Outcomes.

We analyzed the association between the analog and the digital home learning environment (HLE) in toddlers’ and preschoolers’ homes, and whether both aspects are associated with children’s social and academic competencies. Here, we used data of the national representative sample of Growing up in Germany II, which includes 4,914 children aged 0–5 years. The HLE was assessed via parental survey that included items on the analog HLE (e.g., playing word games, reading, and counting) and items on the digital HLE (e.g., using apps or playing with apps). Children’s socio-emotional, practical life skills, and academic competencies were assessed via standardized parental ratings. Our results indicate that there are two dimensions of the HLE, an analog and a digital, that are slightly positively associated, especially in the toddler age group. For toddlers, only analog HLE activities were associated with better socio-emotional outcomes and practical life skills. However, interaction effects indicate that toddlers with less frequent analog HLE activities showed better socio-emotional skills in households with more frequent digital activities. For preschoolers, digital HLE activities were associated with weaker socio-emotional skills but higher academic skills, although the analog HLE shows higher effect sizes for the academic outcomes. Our study points out that analog and digital HLE activities seem to be partly associated, but not interchangeable. Further, they seem to be important variables that can explain individual differences in young children’s socio-emotional, practical life, and academic competencies. However, digital media usage at home may also have negative effects on children’s social–emotional competencies. This association needs to be investigated further.

«Сохранить как…». Роль компьютерного интерфейса в онтологии цифрового мира

The article provides the analysis of the computer interface as a digital world phenomenon in correlation with its constitutive and representative function for image production. Several concepts of media theorists and researchers of visual culture of new (i. e. digital) media (M. Hansen, D. Bruno, D. Drucker) are examined in the context of considering intermediary functions of interface between the computer code message and the user. The analysis of the project of art group Share Lab about the interface and algorithms of Facebook for user behavior is being carried out. The representative role of interface in production of the ontological reality of media is considered, which is correlated both with the production of a media event and with such concept of a contemporary world as “post-truth”. The conclusion is offered that the constitutive role of computer interface is manifested both in social practices of digital media users and production of media events with attention to its representative function.

Effects of COVID-19 pandemic and lockdown on lifestyle and mental health of students: A retrospective study from Karachi, Pakistan

IntroductionDue to the COVID-19 pandemic, many countries imposed lockdowns on their citizens in an attempt to contain the disease. Pakistan is one of these countries. A government mandated lockdown can have mitigating psychological effects on young adults, out of which a large fraction is made up of students. This study aims to investigate the correlations between changes in sleep pattern, perception of time, and digital media usage. Furthermore, it explores the impact of these changes on the mental health of students of different educational levels. MethodsThis cross-sectional study was conducted via a web-based questionnaire, from March 24 to April 26, 2020. The survey was targeted at students and 251 responses were obtained. It was a 5-section long questionnaire. The first section inquired about demographics of participants. Each of the other 4 sections was devoted to changes in sleep pattern, perception of time flow, digital media usage and mental health status of students. Close-ended questions with multiple choice responses, dichotomous, interval and 4-point Likert scales were used in the construction of the survey questionnaire. Chi2 T-tests multinomial and binary logistic regression were used as primary statistical tests. All data were analysed using Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) version 23.0 (IBM Corp., Armonk, NY). ResultsOut of 251 adolescents that participated in our study, the majority (70.2%) were females. The mean age of the participants was 19.40±1.62 years. Two-thirds of the respondents did not have much trouble falling asleep (66.5%). The analysis found no significant association between longer sleep periods and procrastination level (P=0.054). Nearly three-fourths (72.9%) of our participants felt that getting through quarantine would have been more difficult if they did not have any electronic gadgets. Of these, a majority (85.8%) had a general feeling of tiredness and lacked motivation (P=0.023). Additionally, a large number of students (69.7%) had reported that time is seemingly moving faster. A significant relationship between increased usage of electronic items and longer sleep periods was also noted (P=0.005). With respect to the level of education, statistically significant values were noted for alarm use both before and after quarantine began (P=0.021 and P=0.004, respectively). Further analysis showed that there was a significant difference in the median difference of time spent on social media before the outbreak (3.0±32.46) and time spent on social media after the outbreak (6.0±3.52) in a single day (P=0.000). ConclusionsOur research has revealed that due to the lockdown imposed by the government in response to COVID-19, the sleeping patterns of the students was affected the most. Our findings show that the increase in use of social media applications led to a widespread increase in the length of sleep, worsening of sleep habits (people sleeping at much later hours than usual), and a general feeling of tiredness. A general lack of recollection regarding what day of the week it was, as well as a change in the perceived flow of time were also notable. All these findings indicate the decline in mental health of students due to the lockdown. Promoting better sleep routines, minimising the use of digital media, and encouragement of students to take up more hobbies could collectively improve the health and mood of students in self-quarantine.

Usage of digital media by people with intellectual disabilities: Contrasting individuals' and formal caregivers' perspectives.

Although participation in the digital world is an important means for taking part in our society, people with intellectual disabilities are still largely excluded from the manifold possibilities of digital participation. In our study, we investigate attitudes of both formal caregivers and people with intellectual disabilities in Germany regarding their usage of digital media. Our sample consisted of 24 formal caregivers working in residential or outpatient facilities in Germany, and 50 people with intellectual disabilities living in those settings. Data were collected during semi-structured interviews with formal caregivers and focus group discussions with people with intellectual disabilities, and analyzed using inductive content analysis. The findings illustrate that the perspectives on digital media usage differ between people with intellectual disabilities and formal caregivers regarding (i) interest in accessing the Internet and digital media, (ii) interest in education programs, and (iii) the variety of applications used. The perspectives of both target groups will be discussed and contrasted.

Analysis of Drivers of Digital Learning in COVID-19 and Post-COVID-19 Scenario Using an ISM Approach

Learning through Internet is becoming necessary for easy understanding of complex problems and knowledge sharing process. A new pedagogy is being demanded in the teaching process which includes digital platforms for better understanding. Moreover, software and hardware have been developed for ease of access to the materials and smooth learning. The COVID-19 pandemic brought various challenges in livelihood of human life. One of these challenges is teaching and learning process. Although teaching and learning include usage of digital media, there exist a need to digitalize the education system. In this regard, this study aimed to analyse the drivers of digital learning in COVID-19 and post-COVID-19 scenario. Sixteen drivers pertaining to digital learning have been considered for analysis. Interpretive structural modelling (ISM) approach has been used to analyse drivers of digital learning and to develop a structural model. The developed structural model was further validated using MICMAC analysis. Results reveal that low Internet cost and government supports are the two prominent drivers of digital learning. The implementation of developed ISM model would create smooth learning environment in COVID-19 and motivates for innovation in post-COVID-19 scenario.

Measuring the correlation between digital media usage and students’ perceived writing ability: Are they related?

The purpose of our correlational, quantitative study was to determine if time spent using digital media (i.e. text messaging and social media) influences students’ media writing self-perceptions (MWSPs). We measured students’ perceived writing ability using the MWSP scale and their time spent using digital media with the social networking time use scale (SONTUS). Correlations between students’ MWSP scores and SONTUS scores were statistically insignificant, suggesting that time spent using digital media does not negatively influence their perceived writing abilities. However, results from further analyses indicated that as students’ social media use increased, so did their ability to recognise the difference between writing for social media and writing for professional publications. We also found that the more students text the more they use social media and vice versa. We present directions for future research and practice.

The Believability of Exercise Blogs Among Young Adults.

It is unknown how lifelong digital media users such as young adult women perceive exercise information found online. A total of 141 women aged 18-30 years and residing in Canada were randomized to read either a factually incorrect or a factually correct blog article. Participants completed Go/No-Go tasks to measure automatically activated believability and evaluations and questionnaires to explicitly measure believability, affective evaluations, and intentions to exercise. Participants did not show evidence of automatically activated believability of the content found in either blog article. However, participants reading the factually correct article reported significantly greater explicit disbelief than those reading the factually incorrect article, though this did not predict intentions. Being factually correct may not be an important component of message believability. Exercise professionals need to remain aware of the content of popular online sources of information in an effort to curb misinformation.

Relevant local content, social influence, digital literacy, and attitude toward the use of digital technologies by women in Uganda

This study sought to examine the relationship between relevant local content, social influence, digital literacy and the attitude of women toward the use of digital technologies in Uganda. Quantitative research methods were used to collect, analyze and present the data from a sample of 384 women across Uganda. Data were analyzed using frequencies, percentages, factor analysis, correlation and regression analysis methods. Findings reveal a positive significant relationship between social influence, digital literacy, relevant local content and the attitude of women toward the use of digital technologies in Uganda. To improve the attitude of women toward using digital technologies in Uganda, there is a need for the community to approve of women’s usage of digital technologies in different sectors of the economy. It is also important for various stakeholders to work toward improving women’s digital literacy through education programs aimed at teaching women how to use digital media. Localized digital content should also be created in a language that women can understand in order to enhance adoption. Social environment factors such as social norms, values and beliefs should focus toward encouraging women’s usage of digital media over the long-practiced tradition of excluding women from using digital media and other technologies.

The role of empowering mature and older people’s usage of digital media in enhancing intergenerational communication and family relationships in Bahrain

The role of empowering mature and older people’s usage of digital media in enhancing intergenerational communication and family relationships in Bahrain

Невоплощенность в Интернете. Сообщение 1: теоретические основания и конструкт

Disembodiment of digital media users, known as the loss of their physical bodies in cyberspace is among the least-studied psychological consequences of the use of information technologies. In the digital era such kind of disembodiment might limit the development of a person’s individuality. That’s why in present study we aim to create its theoretical construct. The construct is based on the clinical conception of unembodiment of schizoids by the British psychiatrist R. Laing. There is an evidence to suggest that constant split between self and body, that digital media users demonstrate, creates conditions for disembodiment similar to the one of schizoids. This existential position is associated with feelings of loss of reality, self-substantiality and elusiveness of being. In the same way that the disembodiment of schizoids and inherent to it sense of self and view of the world are determined by their ‘shutupness’ in the inner world, the disembodiment of media users is determined by the extent to which their life is limited to the artificial computer environment. The theoretical construct was measured according to this hypothesis. Three measurements, which unites factors that stand against the disembodiment are presented in the article: Disembodiment as Virtualization, Preference of the Internet and their alternative Vitality of the Embodied Self.

Migrants and Spatial Marginality in Urban Digital Media (The Case of Irkutsk)

The article analyzes “migrant” spaces created in Irkutsk by journalists and users of urban digital media. We considered professional news agencies, groups in Vkontakte, and forums as a tool for “space production” in combining many autobiographical descriptions of interaction with the city, images, and publicistic texts into an integral socio-spatial image. We were interested in how the texts’ authors of digital media integrate migrants into the “image of Irkutsk”: do they create specific “migrant” places on the map of Irkutsk? What are their features? Do the “migrant” spaces created on various digital platforms differ from each other? Does the social marginality of the “migrant” receive spatial expression? The materials were selected in the Google search engine, as well as in the built-in search engines of urban communities on Vkontakte and forums, using the keywords “Irkutsk” + “migrants” or “newcomers”. We used the method of retrospective online observation and discourse analysis. By observing the users’ dialogues and publicistic texts posted at different times, we determined which localities “migrants” and “newcomers” were placed in, and what characteristics they were given. It was found that the professional media mainly broadcasts the bureaucratic vision of the “migrant” and its location: it is associated with a set of “suspect spaces”, points of concentration of informal jobs, and are regularly “checked” by officials. Spaces are presented as marginal, do not fit into the city as an established socio-spatial order, and therefore are “dirty” and dangerous. These images move to social media where the image of “dirty” spaces and the “migrant” hiding there, as transmitted by the bureaucracy, collide with the subjective experience of users, becoming more complex and ambiguous. Thus, the “migrant” is placed in a wider range of spaces and social situations, gradually becoming a part of everyday urban life.

PERAN KEGIATAN LITERASI TERHADAP PEMBENTUKAN KARAKTER MAHASISWA PENDIDIKAN AGAMA ISLAM FTK-UNIKS

Abstract: In this XXI century humans have been flooded with information as a result of the increasingly rapid development of information communication technology using digital media as a tool. In order to avoid paradox, digital media literacy skills are needed, so that digital media users are ready to face this era of information flood. On the other hand, education has undergone a reform in which character education has become an important part of forming complete human resources so that strengthening character building has even been integrated in learning activities along with literacy activities. In the Islamic Education’s Department at FTK-UNIKS, digital media literacy-based learning activities have been implemented, but have not emphasized the dimensions of student character. Based on the explanation above, this research can be formulated as follows: What is the role of digital media literacy activities in shaping the character of students of the PAI FTK-UNIKS study program? This research is a qualitative descriptive study conducted at the campus of the Islamic Education’s Department at FTK-UNIKS. Data collection uses the method of observation and documentation and is analyzed using qualitative analysis. The result of the research is that literacy activities play a very important role in shaping the character of students of the PAI FTK-UNIKS study program, namely the sub-values of religious, nationalist, independent, mutual cooperation, integration. Keywords: Literacy Activities, Character Building

DIGITAL MEDIA AND TECHNOLOGICAL CHALLENGES FOR MEDIA EDUCATION IN PAKISTAN

This paper aims to record concerns of media education currently under debate in Pakistan. It indicates three main study trends. The first trend is concerned about Pakistani digital technology users, their skills in technologies especially digital media usage and the second about new media learning and teaching methods by using new media tools like mobile devices, tablets, social media networking, which needs new technical and technological framework. The last trend deals with literacy concerning digital education, related to both the skills required by digital media students have to progress and what educators especially faculty members have to be trained about these media technologies. In order to achieve objectives pertaining to these trends, semi-structured interviews of students and educators are conducted. Concerning the first trend, we observe a division of perspectives and understanding between those who believe that all we need is new media education for old academic solutions and those we think there is a need of changing academic styles, thus allowing it to grow into a new standard. For this purpose, they stress that digital devices should be made an integral part of today’s classrooms. Concerning the second trend, we observe a consensus on teaching and learning by using digital devices as the most useful, helpful tools. Mostly, the school educators have their own laptops, tablets, and mobile phones however, they stressed on a combination of ethics, education and utilization of digital media in a good manner. Finally, the notion of literacy concerning digital media which has received significant consideration be defined in various ways particularly in the south Asian context. Keywords: Digital Media, Digital Technology, Native Educators, Pakistan

The Impact of Cyber-bullying on Private High school Teenagers in Cairo Governorate

As technology is known as one of the modern communication revolutions, where Mass communication now started to depend heavily on it. This created new challenges, incidents and, problems. Such as, cyberbullying and hacking. Cyberbullying has some effects. Such as, weak academic performance, frustration, suicide, violence, and damaging the mental health of the users.Reporting incidents of cyberbullying in Egypt is also a big problem, considering the social, and cultural constraints of our society. Thus, the aim of this research is to explore digital media crimes, cyberbullying, and analyse its negative consequences on teenagers in Egypt, in order to protect them, and at the same time, try to suggest some mechanism to combat this phenomenon. This will lead to reducing cybercrimes rates in the digital media among Egyptian teenagers. The research type is qualitative research where surveys and interview questions were distributed, in order to analyse relationships.One of the main discoveries included that cyberbullying and harassment are considered as one of the main concerns of the society and are known as the most common cybercrimes which teenagers face. Also, it was found that in Egypt, cyberbullying spread rapidly throughout the years. Also, both Mediatization theory and the Spiral of Silence Theory were applied. The problem statement is that usage of digital media increased. Also, the lack of restrictions caused the teenagers to start using digital media as way to humiliate other people, as an example, defamation started to spread. Finally, this study uses analytical descriptive studies and scientific research methods. Finally, after analysing the questionnaire, one of the findings was that due to the lack of restrictions, cybercrime is spread through digital media, especially social media. One of the main discoveries was that the exposure to cyberbullying is linked with the negative psychological effects. Such as, depression and anxiety.

Antecedents of Attitude towards Advertising of Controversial Products in Digital Media

The promotion of controversial products on digital media has become a challenge for marketers as consumers of different ethnicities and cultures access web media. Therefore, the study has examined the impact of advertising’s antecedents on consumers’ attitude and their effect on purchase intentions. The study has also considered the mediating roles of attitude towards purchase intentions. The population for this study comprises of adult female digital media users. We collected data from 400 female respondents via the online survey method. The results suggest that hedonic value, falsity, and materialism directly impact attitude towards the advertising of controversial products. Further, hedonic value and materialism also affect purchase intentions. We also found that advertising attitude mediates the relationship between hedonic value, falsity, materialism, and purchase intentions. The study’s empirical results will help design appropriate marketing strategies, especially in the context of controversial products. Future research may extend the model by incorporating other factors and testing their efficacy in different regions and cultures.

Perceived changes of specific attitudes, perceptions and behaviors during the Corona pandemic and their relation to wellbeing

BackgroundDuring the COVID-19 pandemic, most people had to cope with the restrictions of the lockdown, leaving them to their fears, insecurity and isolation. On the other hand, due to the unexpected ‘extra time’ there was room for new experiences and for personal reflections on what is essential in life, to perceive nature and relations more consciously etc. We, therefore, intended to analyze perceived changes of attitudes and behaviors during the time of lockdown, and whether these perceptions would contribute to personal wellbeing during the pandemic.MethodsAn anonym cross-sectional online survey was performed for data collection, using standardized questionnaires, i.e., the WHO-Five Well-being Index (WHO-5), Brief Multidimensional Life Satisfaction Scale (BMLSS), Awe/Gratitude scale (GrAw-7), and the newly developed Perceived Changes Questionnaire (PCQ).ResultsWithin the number of respondents (n = 1277), women were predominating (67.5%). Participants’ mean age was 50.9 ± 14.9 years. Exploratory factor analyses showed that the 24-item Perceived Changes Questionnaire differentiated five factors that would account for 61% of variance: (1) Nature/Silence/Contemplation (Cronbach’s alpha = .87), (2) Spirituality (Cronbach’s alpha = .83), (3) Relationships (Cronbach’s alpha = .80), (4) Reflection on life (Cronbach’s alpha = .74), (5) Digital media usage (Cronbach’s alpha = .74). Strongest changes were observed for Relationships and Nature/Silence/Contemplation. Perceived changes were stronger among older persons, among persons with higher wellbeing, and among those who relied on their faith as a resource. These changes were predicted best by a person’s perception of wondering awe in distinct situations with subsequent feelings of gratitude. Stepwise regression analyzes revealed that participants’ wellbeing was explained best by low perceived burden and high life satisfaction (R2 = .46). Awe/gratitude, perceived changes in terms of Nature/Silence/Contemplation and low Reflections of live are further variables that would predict a person’s wellbeing among the COVID-19 pandemic.ConclusionsDuring the Corona pandemic, people tried to find ways to adapt to the outcomes of the restrictions. The perceived changes of attitudes and behaviors can be interpreted in terms of a reappraisal strategy. These can be measured with the extended version of the PCQ which was found to have good quality indices and a plausible factor structure. The reported changes contribute to persons’ wellbeing only to some extend, indicating that they represent an independent quality of relevance in peoples’ life.

The use of digital media in primary school PE – student perspectives on product-oriented ways of lesson staging

ABSTRACT Background: There is a controversial debate about the use of digital media in physical education. There are various research results, which mostly do not relate to primary school, however. There are no known studies showing how media educational goals can be integrated into physical education. Our contribution takes this desideratum as its starting point. Taking both current discussion lines in sports pedagogy about physical education in elementary school and the basic assumptions of media education into account, we designed, implemented and evaluated teaching units for the use of digital media in physical education. Purpose: This occurred with regard to the research question of how students in elementary school interpret and experience the use of digital media in physical education when media educational goals and objectives of physical education are addressed equally. This raises the question which opportunities and limitations for educational processes (with regard to movement education, general education and also media education) can be reconstructed. Method: To address the question of students’ perspectives and interpretations on the usage of digital media in physical education, tablets were used in the PE classroom of four primary school classes over the period of one school year. Lessons were developed and carried out in which students were tasked with creating media products using the tablets and the iMovie app. The teaching units were evaluated afterwards based on the research approach of focusing on the perspectives of the students involved. For this purpose, we conducted and analyzed 39 guided interviews with the students after each lesson. The data was analyzed using the grounded theory methodology. Findings: From the analysis of the interviews we developed a category system that describes phenomena of an extended range of access to the experience of physical activity in PE. These are captioned using the categories ‘New creative roles and tasks’ (which is divided in the two subcategories ‘The empowered camera child’ and ‘The cool actor’) and ‘Focused products’ (which is divided in the three subcategories ‘Re-recording of a product’, ‘Improving and developing the product’, and ‘Appreciation and recognition of the product’). The results show that the children's main focus is on their experience of movement. Conclusion: The use of digital media opens up new possibilities in the context of learning and experiencing movement. Besides the function of learning with media, the use of digital media in physical education also means that students learn something about media, for example when the use of media generates personal data that the students and teachers work with. Whether the use of digital media can be beneficial for physical education classes thus depends on the design of the lesson itself.

‘Youngsplaining’ and moralistic judgements: exploring ageism through the lens of digital ‘media ideologies’

AbstractIn this paper, we explore ageist depictions of both young and older people as they emerge from discourses addressing ‘other people's’ digital media usage practices. We carried out eight focus groups (four with teenagers, four with people aged 65 or older) in two southern European cities (Rome and Barcelona). By negotiating the affordances and constraints of (digital) tools and platforms, people develop their own usage norms and strategies, which might – or might not – be intersubjectively shared. Discourses surrounding usage practices and norms tend to refer to what people understand as an appropriate way of using digital platforms: these discourses proved to be powerful triggers for expressing ageist stereotypes; ‘the others’ were depicted, by both teenage and older participants, as adopting inappropriate usage practices (with regard to content, form, skills and adherence to social norms). These reflections proved to have broader implications on how other age cohorts are perceived: participants tended to take discourses on digital media usage as an opportunity for making generalised judgements about ‘the others’, which address their manners, as well as their attitude towards communication and social life. Inter-group discrimination processes and ageist stereotypes play a major role in shaping the strong moralistic and patronising judgements expressed by older and younger participants towards ‘the other’ age cohort.

“I do it my way”: Idioms of practice and digital media ideologies of adolescents and older adults

This article analyzes the idioms of practice and media ideologies of adolescents and older adults regarding mobile digital media usage, and how they are negotiated within and between age cohorts. We formed aged-based focus groups in Rome and Barcelona (four groups of 16- to 19-year-olds and four of 65- to 85-year-olds). The comparison provides new insights on older individuals’ communication practices, often overshadowed by the focus on youth. Participants of both age groups explained they do media in their own way, which is perceived as “the right” (or legitimate) way. Strategies and hierarchies differ with age, according to meanings and rankings attributed to media choices in a communicative environment of affordances, or polymedia. The results suggest that differentiated generation-based idioms of practice and media ideologies are in operation in each cohort while, in both cases, refer to adaptative and goal-oriented communications.