Different Types Of Metaphors Research Articles

Metaphor comprehension and production in verbally able children with Autism Spectrum Disorder.

Research in the field of figurative language processing in Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD) has demonstrated that autistic individuals experience systematic difficulties in the comprehension of different types of metaphors. However, there is scarce evidence regarding metaphor production skills in ASD. Importantly, the exact source of metaphor processing difficulties in ASD remains largely controversial. The debate has mainly focused on the mediating role of structural language skills (i.e., lexical knowledge) and cognitive abilities (i.e., Theory of Mind and executive functions) in ASD individuals' ability to comprehend and generate metaphors. The present study examines metaphor comprehension and production in 18 Greek-speaking verbally able children with ASD and 31 typically-developing (TD) controls. Participants completed two tasks, namely, a low-verbal multiple-choice sentence-picture matching task that tested their ability to comprehend conventional predicate metaphors, and a sentence continuation task that assessed their ability to generate metaphors. The study also included measures of fluid intelligence, expressive vocabulary, and working memory within the sample. The results show that the ASD group had significantly lower performance than the TD group in both metaphor comprehension and production. The findings also reveal that expressive vocabulary skills were a key factor in the metaphor comprehension and production performance of the children with ASD. Working memory capacity was also found to correlate significantly with metaphor comprehension performance in the ASD group. Conversely, no correlations were found in the TD group with neither of the above factors. Of note, children with ASD generated significantly more inappropriate responses and no-responses to the metaphor production task compared with the control group. The overall results reveal that children with ASD had difficulty with both comprehending and using metaphorical language. The findings also indicate that TD children may employ diverse cognitive strategies or rely on different underlying skills when processing metaphors compared with children with ASD.

The Speculative Journey—or, What Does It Mean to be a Traveller?

This paper explores the pervasive use of journey and traveller metaphors in everyday language, and their applications in philosophical discourse. While these metaphors offer rich insights into abstract concepts such as love and philosophy, they also introduce ambiguities that can impede effective communication. By dissecting the nuances of these metaphorical figures, the paper aims to clarify their meanings and enhance their explanatory power. Divided into three main sections, the paper first discusses different types of metaphors and their general structure, providing a foundation for understanding metaphorical language. The second section delves into the specific metaphor of journey and traveller, analyzing its various connotations and implications with insights from scholars such as Dariusz Kubok and Steven Shaviro. Through this analysis, the distinctions between a traveller and a tourist are explored to deepen our understanding of metaphorical frameworks in philosophical discourse. Finally, the paper examines a specific journey strategy, focusing on Object-Oriented Ontology as an exemplification of a philosophical journey. Building upon prior conclusions, this last section elucidates the meaning and implications of this journey strategy, seeking to shed light on the multifaceted nature of philosophical discourse.

Modern metaphor research in Russia: Trends, schools and results

This article focuses on various trends and linguistic approaches to metaphor studies in Russia (2019-2023). The latter deal with different types of metaphors, process of metaphor formation and the use of metaphors in discourse. The basic methods of investigation include comparative, inductive, generalization and descriptive approaches. The article summarises new results in modern studies of metaphor on data from Slavic, Romance and Germanic languages. In the paper, we show the role of metaphor both as a trope and a cognitive operation in monolingual and comparative studies. Alongside these traditional areas, we discuss the results of metaphor studies in multimodal texts and corpora. Multimodal texts are frequently constructed on the intersection of mental, semiotic and semantic fields. Corpora, which have proved to be a convenient source of recent and reliable data, present another modern sphere of investigation of metaphoric potential in Russian studies. We discuss such important areas of metaphor studies as the interdisciplinary approach, pluralism of methods, critical attitudes to universalism, emphasis on cultural features of communication and discourse, and the blending of rhetorical and cognitive methods.

Eloquent Metaphors: Leveraging Linguistic Tools for Leadership in Biden's Inaugural Political Rhetoric

This study examined the intricate use of metaphorical language by President Joe Biden inaugural address, revealing its profound impact on political rhetoric and public perception. Utilizing conceptual metaphor theory as a framework, this study thoroughly identified and analyzed different types of metaphors in Biden's speech: conceptual, structural, and cultural. The analysis revealed how these metaphors transcend mere linguistic ornamentation and serve as fundamental cognitive tools that shape collective understanding and emotional connection. Biden’s speech, which is rich in metaphors, transforms complex political and social challenges into relatable stories and images that, resonate deeply with a wide audience. This study also contextualizes metaphorical use in a broader historical and cultural context, highlighting the dynamic nature of the political discourse. Moreover, it sheds light on the educational importance of understanding metaphors, emphasizing their roles in enhancing communication and rhetorical skills in various fields. This study offers deeper insight into the strategic use of metaphors in political rhetoric and how they play a crucial role in the interplay between language, cognition, and persuasion.

Research on Conceptual Metaphors of Sense of national Community in China Daily English Reports

This paper takes the English reports on the sense of national community in China Daily, the mainstream media of China, from 2018 to 2022 as the research object. Based on conceptual metaphor, this article analyses the types, distribution characteristics and role of metaphors in the reports of “sense of national community”. Study finds out that eight different types of metaphors were used in English news reports, and that the frequency of different metaphor types was very unevenly distributed. There is an inappropriate use of religious metaphor in the report. This study has implications for Chinese mainstream media in delivering a sense of national community, spreading Chinese culture and enhancing national cultural confidence.

Metaphorical COVID-19 Concepts: A Corpus Pragmatics Study

This paper investigates the way pragmatics and corpus linguistics can benefit from each other through tackling metaphorical language. The metaphors of COVID-19 and how they can be analyzed both qualitatively and quantitively in the realm of corpus pragmatics analysis will be focused on. Significantly, the basic aim of the paper is to shed light on the very nature and use of metaphorical concepts, particularly their pragmatic functions. Moreover, the paper seeks to uncover the fundamental similarities between pragmatics as a linguistic discipline and metaphor as a linguistic tool, since both represent the essence of a hidden or implied meaning. Pragmatic theory views metaphor as a speech act. In other words, a speaker is using signs with a literal meaning to create a new intentional structure which has no literal meaning. To answer the research questions set by the paper, the study adopts a corpus pragmatic analysis in order to trace the recent spread of metaphorical language concerning COVID-19. The combination of pragmatics and corpus linguistics in this study led to the use of methodologies from both fields. Regarding metaphorical concepts, the corpus analysis proves that there is no one-to-one relation between form and function. The speech acts as well as the politeness strategies are in constant change in accordance with their context. Yet, the metaphors expressed are most frequently based on the choice of words and their accompanying referential meaning. Most notably, the ‘War Metaphors’ and the ‘Fire Metaphors’ have been particularly appropriate and versatile in reference to the pandemic and the process of combatting it. Therefore, this research also attempts to discuss the different types of metaphors used referring to the pandemic from a corpus pragmatics perspective

Processing of different types of metaphors for polysemous words in Russian

Theories of storing the multiple senses of polysemous words in the mental lexicon suggest three key approaches. Some theories assume that only literal senses are stored, while non-literal senses are derived from them via rules; other theories suggest that all senses are stored separately. There is also a hybrid approach which assumes that some non-literal senses can be stored as separate units, while others are derived from literal ones. However, the evidence in favor of hybrid models has been obtained mainly from data comparing either metonymy and metaphor, or else proximal and distal metonymy. In this paper, the predictions of hybrid models are tested on proximal and distal metaphors. With the help of an experiment involving a group of adult native speakers of Russian, we demonstrate a difference in sensicality judgment and processing speed between proximal and distal metaphors, as compared to the literal senses of verbs and adjectives. Adjectival distal metaphors are treated almost in the same way as literal senses. Proximal metaphors are processed more slowly and less accurately. For verbs, both proximal and distal metaphors are processed slower than literal senses and are more likely to be evaluated as nonsensical. Such results suggest that verbal metaphors and adjectival proximal metaphors are derived via a reference to the word’s literal sense during processing. Adjectival distal metaphors, in turn, are processed independently. The difference between adjectives and verbs in the processing of metaphors can be associated with the different nature of the mechanisms involved in the development of polysemy.

CONCEPTUAL MAPPING MODEL ACROSS LANGUAGES: A TEST IN VIETNAMESE LANGUAGE

The conceptual metaphor, LOVE IS A JOURNEY, has been identified as a process of mapping based on the Conceptual Metaphor Theory (CMT) proposed by Lakoff and Johnson (1980). However, Ahrens (2002) pointed out several problems that the CMT may encounter, especially in setting parameters to be experimentally tested. Ahrens (2002) proposed the Conceptual Mapping Model (CMM) to investigate metaphor expressions by identifying three mappings between the source domain and the target domain: entities, qualities, and functions. After an analysis, the reason for these mappings, called a mapping principle, is indicated. In particular, the CMM can predict the processing of conceptual metaphors in terms of conventional and novel metaphors. This study is intended to test whether the CMM can perform well across languages through the experimental rates of acceptability and interpretability for different types of metaphors. Fifty Vietnamese native speakers were recruited. Each participant judged (on a Likert scale of 1-7) the levels of acceptability and interpretability of three conceptual metaphors in Vietnamese: LIFE IS A BOOK, HAPPINESS IS LIGHT, and LOVE IS FIRE. Each conceptual metaphor consists of six types of sentences, including (a) Literal pair to B, (b) Conventional metaphor, (c) Literal pair to D, (d) Novel metaphor that follows the mapping principle, (e) Literal pair to F, and (f) Novel metaphor that does not follow the mapping principle. The results of t-tests show that in terms of both acceptability and interpretability, conventional metaphors are ranked higher than novel metaphors. The results also indicate that novel metaphors that follow the mapping principle are rated higher than those that do not. Therefore, the mapping principle can constrain the image schemas so that any image that does not belong to the schemas can affect the processing of metaphors.

Making Sense of Subjective Experiences with Metaphors

In this paper, we seek to understand how metaphors facilitate sensemaking by providing a focused, detailed, and comprehensive account of how they help practitioners surface and convey subjective experiences. Our study, inspired by a phenomenological perspective, draws on 32 interviews with film workers narrating their work experience. We show how film workers used and combined different types of metaphors in a dynamic way to communicate their experiences in four steps––naming (using dead body metaphors), specifying (using conventional body metaphors), singularizing (using novel body metaphors), and fictionalizing (using a novel professional metaphor). With our study we extend prior sensemaking research by theorizing the various roles that metaphors play, above and beyond their ability to facilitate understanding. Specifically, we offer three novel insights on metaphors: we explain how some types of metaphors help sensemaking by redistributing agency; we theorize the retroactive power of metaphors––i.e., how the use of metaphors affects the utterer in return by highlighting some of their qualities. Finally, we explain how, by fostering imagination, metaphors allow people to transcend subjectivities.

Metaphor in Parable from the Noble Qur’an: A Corpus Based Stylistic Approach

A compelling speech figure, a parable, or a metaphor in the Qur'an seeks to explain a crucial point by sticking in the mind and helping us absorb the message and firmly lodge it in our hearts. The stylistic method utilized in this study was a corpus-based stylistic method, which entails a contextual assessment of the term or pattern in issue. The information is based on passages from the Qur'anic corpus that have been translated into English. The stylistic corpus-based approach was used to investigate four different types of metaphor. They are standard, implied, visual, and extended metaphors, as evidenced by the findings. From the result finding it shows that there are 21 verses in the metaphor that are classified as standard metaphors, accounting for 61% of the metaphor. There are 5 verses, or 13%, of implied metaphor, 7 verses, or 18%, of visual metaphor, and 3 verses, or 8%, of extended metaphor. The metaphor that appeared the most frequently is a standard metaphor.

Semantic analysis and frequency effects of conceptual metaphors of emotions in Latin. From a corpus-based approach to a dictionary of Latin metaphors

AbstractThis article presents the main results of a corpus-based analysis of the metaphorical expression of emotions in Latin and a new resource specifically designed to facilitate such large-scale study of conceptual metaphors, theLexicon Translaticium Latinum. The first part of the paper provides quantitative and qualitative evidence about the types of metaphors used by Roman writers to express four basic emotions: fear, anger, love, and hate. Our research takes a corpus-based and target-oriented approach, analyzing all occurrences of the main lexemes denoting these emotions in Latin texts dating between the third century BCE and the second century CE. The results demonstrate the highly embodied nature of the metaphors used by Latin authors to make sense of (and express linguistically) their experiences of fear, anger, love, and hate. Moreover, the differences in the usage of the metaphorical patterns across the four semantic fields, in terms of type and frequency, correlate with the different physiological reactions provoked by the four emotions we examined. In the second part of the paper, we present theLexicon Translaticium Latinum, an open-access, digital dictionary of Latin metaphors, currently under development. It facilitates large-scale analyses of highly conventionalized metaphoric patterns that organize meanings throughout Latin, at the same time allowing the kinds of relations that subsist between different types of metaphors to be captured and encoded in machine-readable formats.

Metaphor Power of Military Doctrines in Russian, Chinese and American English

Metaphor in modern linguistics is understood not only as a means of decorating speech, but also as a means of structuring, transforming and creating new knowledge, evoking emotions, influencing the perception. The article aims to estimate the potential speech impact of the military doctrines’ texts with the help of the metaphor power quantitative index. The methodology is based on calculating the indices of metaphor density (MDI), intensity (MII) and functionality of metaphors in the text (MfPI). The theoretical basis of the research is the conceptual metaphor theory by J. Lakoff and M. Johnson, as well as ideas about the metaphor power and the potential persuasiveness of metaphors in the text and discourse, most fully presented in the works on meta-analysis of the metaphor speech impact by P. Sopory and S. van Stee. Thus, we assume that the higher the density of metaphors in the text, the higher is the per-suasiveness of the given speech message. Metaphors of different intensity are based on two different cognitive mechanisms, namely, categorization and comparison, and affect the recipient in different ways, since they are perceived differently by him. Conventional metaphors tend to have a so-called cognitive effect, and new “creative” metaphors, in turn, may have a considerable emotional impact. Different types of metaphors also have different functions: orientational metaphors perform a descriptive function, ontological metaphors are used to explain (translate) complex objects and phenomena, identifying them in the mind of recipients, structural metaphors serve the purpose of restructuring the signified (le signifié in terms of Saussure) of an object or phenomenon, changing the recipient’s point of view on the subject. The material under study includes the latest published doctrinal military documents – the Military Doctrine of the Russian Federation (2014), the White Paper “China’s Defense in the New Era” (2019), and a Summary of the US National Defense Strategy (2020). The empiric results of the study show that the metaphor power of the Chinese text in comparison with American English and Russian is higher in terms of the density and intensity of the metaphors used, which indicates the intention to make the White Paper more convincing and emotionally affecting. “The US National Defense Strategy” is less saturated with novel metaphors, but at the same time it uses a greater number of structural metaphors, which indicates the intention to produce a cognitive declarative impact rather than emotional effect. The text of the Russian Military Doctrine has the lowest indices of the density and intensity of metaphors; the number of structural metaphors found in it was also the smallest, which leads us to conclude that this document highlights the informative function, having the identifying nature. The method of metaphor power analysis proposed and tested in this study allows us to single out two different types of speech impact – emotional and cognitive –, as well as makes it possible to express quantitatively their degree. In addition, the values of the metaphorical indices can be used to specify the genre and style of texts under study.

«Эмотивные ключи» в творениях Свт. Кирилла Туровского

The author shows how emotive means when falling into the sphere of Christian iconology, are transformed into tools for the spiritual change of a person. One such tool is represented by emotive keys. In the prayers of St Kirill Turovsky they are represented by such varieties as “liturgical emotive keys” – fragments of liturgical sequences (direct quotations, individual reminiscences and/or allusions, centons from reminiscences, allusions, paraphrases, etc.) and “emotive toposes” – images specific to the Pax Christiana culture, easily recognizable by its adherents (hyperbolized self-abasement, different types of metaphors).

Personality’s Perceptions of Other People in Connection with the “World Image” and the “World Picture”

Introduction. This article presents a study that is devoted to the problem of relationship of a subject’s perceptions of other people and the phenomenon of the “world image” of a personality. This problem is relevant for humanities scholars in different countries of the world in conditions of exacerbation of intercultural and interethnic conflicts. Materials and Methods. An empirical study was carried out with the purpose of a comparative analysis of the features of the “world image” in people who differ in metaphorical perceptions of “friends” and “foes”. The subject of the research was the metaphors of “friend” and “foe”, the basic beliefs of the person and the types of the “world image” presented in narratives. The following methods were applied: metaphor content analysis, testing, narrative analysis, methods of mathematical statistics (quartiles, Kruskal – Wallis H-test, regression analysis). Results. The scientific novelty of the conducted study is the original development of parameters for the analysis of narrative “world images” of the personality. For the first time, interconnections of different types of metaphors of “friends” and “foes” as partners in communication and various parameters of the narrative “world image” of the subject are revealed. It is concluded that the attribution of positive or negative and ambivalent socio-psychological metaphorical characteristics for “friends” and “foes” is associated with a positive or ambivalent “world image” of the “conceptual” or “perceptual” type. Conclusion. The results of the study generally indicate that the subject’s metaphorical ideas about “friends” and “foes” affect the subject’s “world image”.

A network of conventional and deliberate metaphors in Psalm 22

Metaphors are not stand-alone units, but figure often in larger chains and regularly build upon each other. Yet, not all metaphors are the same. Some are very simple, such as the simile, while other metaphors require more active cross-domain mapping in thought. Still others are also context-dependent, deliberately used to convey new insights or used with a certain rhetorical intention. The study of various metaphorical clusters in Psalm 22 allows us to discuss the different types of metaphors and their distinct communicative functions. The most remarkable metaphorical cluster is based on the conceptual metaphor yhwh is fire. Built upon this conceptual layer is another metaphor, namely people melt before yhwh like wax melts before fire. Used in the context of Ps. 22.15, this deliberate metaphor confirms yhwh’s absolute sovereignty. His authority and power are in Ps. 22.13–17 the reason for fear, because his is a flaming and destructive power.

A Semiotic Perspective of Metaphor Translation

Abstract This paper reports on a translation project launched at Xi’an International Studies University (XISU) in 2017 that focuses on political news published by Hanban, which offers a platform for instructions and services for Chinese language and culture globally. Assisted by the metaphor identification method MIPVU (Metaphor Identification Procedure from Vrije Universiteit) and the data retrieval software HyConc, metaphors in the self-established corpus were efficiently and comprehensively identified. The metaphors were classified into 12 categories based on metaphorical images in the source domains. Next, an analysis of the cultural, communicative, and political characteristics or features of the metaphors was conducted under the framework of semiotics by using a diversity of images of the metaphors’ corresponding signifier and signified to trace the emergence, processing/understanding, and transformation of the metaphors through translation. Ultimately, three feasible translation techniques are proposed that are suitable for different types of metaphors: 1) preserving the metaphorical image, 2) preserving the metaphorical image with annotation, and 3) transforming the metaphorical image, in pursuit of providing reference for translators in related translation practice.

“Congenial people”, “dissonant people” and “image of the word” of a mature person

This research is dedicated to the problem of correlation between perception of other people by a subject and phenomenon of the “image of the world”. This topic is relevant for scholars of humanities in different countries in conditions of aggravation of various macrosocial conflicts. A theoretical study is conducted on correlations between the phenomena of “image of the world”, “worldview”, “model of the world”,  and approaches of the Russian psychology towards them. The author explores the results of empirical study of the “image of the world”, reflected in drawings, through the prism of metaphorical representations of a mature person on “congenial people” and “dissonant people”. The goal consists on carrying out a comparative analysis of peculiarities of the “image of the world” among persons differing in metaphorical representations on “congenial people” and “dissonant people”. The subject of this research is the metaphors of "congenial person” and “dissonant person”, the basic principles of a person and types of the “image of the world” depicted in drawings and verbal characteristics. The scientific novelty lies in the development of additional parameters for the analysis of the “image of the world” of a person, reflected in drawings. This article is first to determine correlations between different types of metaphors of “congenial person” and “dissonant person” as communication partners, and parameters of the “image of the world” of a person depicted in drawings. The conclusion is made that attribution of positive metaphorical socio-psychological characteristics to “congenial people” and “dissonant people” is associated with positive assessment of the objects of surrounding world. Stereotypization of images of other people as communication partners correlates with such of the “image of the world” in consciousness of a subject. The research results indicate that perceptions of “congenial people” and “dissonant people” by the subject affect their “image of the world”. The presented materials can be used in socio-psychological counseling for elaboration of the programs of correcting the system of relations of the subject to themselves and other people.

I did not say that the government should be plundering anybody’s savings

Abstract This paper examines how politicians employ metaphors to express starting points in British parliamentary debates. Because these metaphors are conceptual tools that may have presuppositions and entailments that are not in line with the ideas and values of all discussion parties, political opponents can resist them by advancing argumentative criticisms. This paper aims to explore how different types of metaphor can be used to express starting points, and how various types of responses can be instrumental to achieving diverging outcomes in the discussion stage at which starting points are commonly decided. To this end, we present a number of case studies of resistance to metaphorically expressed starting points found in British Public Bill Committee debates. Our analysis reveals that metaphors can be important strategies in parliamentary debates when starting points are established between parties, and that resisting them seems to be a pertinent skill.

Figurative analogies and how they are resisted in British Public Bill Committee debates

Abstract This paper studies metaphor use in British Public Bill Committee debates. It focuses on the way in which legislators frame their arguments in metaphorical terms under the form of figurative analogies. Because these figurative analogies can be misleading by oversimplifying the issue under discussion, resisting them by putting forward counter-argumentation is a crucial and necessary skill. The purpose of this paper is to explore the phenomenon of countering figurative analogies in legislative debates, and to show that resistance to figurative analogies is a complex phenomenon comprising various types of criticisms to different types of metaphor. To this end, we present qualitative analyses of a number of case studies of resistance to figurative analogies found in the British Public Bill Committee debates on the Education Bill 2010–11 by employing the three-dimensional model of metaphor (Steen, 2011) and the pragma-dialectical theory of argumentation (Van Eemeren, 2010).

Metáfora gramatical ideacional: Un recurso clave para la alfabetización avanzada y académica

Ideational grammatical metaphor (Halliday, 1994/1985, 1998) is a linguistic resource of the academic register, which implies ‘objectifying’ the experiential meanings and become less contestable logical meanings. The domain of this resource is important to achieve a state of advanced and academic literacy in different disciplines, so this research aims to identify and characterize ten types of ideational grammatical metaphor (experiential and logical) in Chilean students writing in the areas of Biology and History and in three stages of formation, namely, 9th and 11th high school grades and 3rd year of university education. The findings show that students intuitively use different types of metaphors from 9th grade, however, its use is not always consistent or appropriate. In history, as well as in Biology, a constant vacillation between congruent and metaphorical forms can be seen and, at the university level, a type of characteristic metaphor of the historical discourse is identified.