CONCEPTUAL MAPPING MODEL ACROSS LANGUAGES: A TEST IN VIETNAMESE LANGUAGE

Book Review. A New Insight into Theory of Conceptual Metaphor

The Conceptual Metaphor Theory (CMT) established the pervasiveness of metaphor in thought and language and provided evidence that metaphor is, in fact, deeply embedded in our conceptual system. Contrary to the original claim that conceptual metaphors are largely universal, in almost four decades after its inception, the CMT researchers including George Lakoff and Mark Johnson have advanced the idea of cultural influence on metaphorical conceptualisation. In recent years, the trend in metaphor research has been to study how metaphor behaves in naturally occurring discourse. It is in this context that the current study explores conceptual metaphors in India's rich cultural context. The main objectives of the current study are, (i) to examine conceptual metaphors of womanhood found in English literary works set in India's three culturally diverse linguistic regions, and (ii) to compare and contrast them across literary works of the three regions.�The data of linguistic metaphors was collected from 21 literary works, seven in each linguistic region. This data was tested for metaphoricity using the Metaphor Identification Procedure, Vrije University, Amsterdam (MIPVU) developed by the PRAGGLEJAZ Group, after which it was analysed using the CMT. The CMT enabled the identification of the source domain used in each linguistic metaphor and subsequently, the uncovering of conceptual metaphors through the establishment of cross-domain mappings between the source and target domains. The framework of the Cognitive Dimension of Metaphor Variation by Zoltan K?vecses has been used to analyse the metaphors for similarities and variations across the three regions. The Great Chain of Being metaphor or the GCB model has guided the understanding of the negative and positive conceptualisation of the metaphors of womanhood.�The analysis revealed that a total of 30 source domains have been utilised by the authors across the three regions. Of these, 21 in the Indo-Aryan, 27 in the Dravidian and 23 source domains in Tibeto-Burmese literary works. Of these, the source domains, ANIMALS, OBJECTS, SUPERNATURAL ENTITIES, PLANTS, and ELEMENTS OF NATURE are the most frequently used. The source domain, ANIMALS tops in the aggregate with approximately 25% of total metaphors across the three regions conceptualising women in terms of animals. The next most frequently used source domain is OBJECTS with 22% of the total metaphors conceptualising women in terms of objects.�In terms of the target domains of womanhood, the Indo-Aryan works focus more on the conceptualisation of motherhood, the Dravidian works focus more on the conceptualisation of wifehood and metaphors found in the Tibeto-Burmese literary works focus more on the women's physical attributes and beauty. Lastly, the conceptualisation of womanhood in the Indo-Aryan and Dravidian literary works is more negative than positive, with the negative conceptualisation of womanhood being the higher in the Dravidian literary works. In the Tibeto-Burmese literary works, the percentage of positive and negative metaphors was found to be proportionate. The main implication of this research is that it is the first comprehensive study of literary metaphors ever conducted. The study analysed 708 linguistic metaphors of womanhood from 21 literary works across India.

پژوهش حاضر به بررسی شیوۀ مفهوم­ سازی خشم و عذاب الهی در قرآن کریم می­پردازد. به این ­منظور، نخست، آیه‌های دربرگیرندة مفهوم‌های مورد نظر گرد­آوری شدند و سپس از جنبة حوزه­ های مبدأ و نیز مرحله‌ها و سناریوی خشم مورد بررسی قرارگرفتند. هدف از این بررسی، یافتن تناظرهای قابلِ درک برای انسان در قرآن کریم است. مبنای این تناظر، شیوۀ مفهوم‌سازی خشم و الگوی حاکم بر آن در حالت‌های گوناگون انسانی، مدلِ کووچش (Kövecses, 1986) است. از یافته‌های این بررسی می­توان به مفهوم ­سازی خشم در قرآن کریم با استفاده از حوزه‌های مبدأ «آتش»، «بلا و خسران»، «حیوان»، «مادۀ خوراکیِ­ تلخ و گزنده»، «تاریکی و ظلمت» و «فاصله» اشاره نمود که شباهت چشم‌گیری با حوزه‌های مبدأ خشمِ انسانی دارد. این شباهت­ها با توجه به ماهیّت متفاوت خشم در خداوند و بشر، از آن ­جهت اهمیّت دارد که سازوکارهای کلام قرآنی را در انتقال پیام الهی به مخاطب بشری نشان می­دهد. به­ بیان دیگر، در راستایِ بعد هدایت­ گری و اهمیّت انتقال پیام الهی به مخاطب انسانی، خداوند از کلامی برای ارتباط با انسان بهره می‌برد که برای گونة بشری ملموس و مأنوس بوده و حقیقت‌های معنوی و واقعیت‌های انتزاعی را با بهره‌گیری از مفاهیم عینی و تجربی به او منتقل می ­نماید تا برای مخاطب خود درک‌پذیرتر باشد. همچنین، با توجه آیه‌ها و مستندات قرآنی الگوی خشم خداوند با سناریوی خشمِ انسانی تفاوت داشته و مشتمل بر سه مرحلۀ بینش و هدایت، هشدار و اخطار و در مرحلۀ آخر عقاب است.

GENERAL COMMENTARY article Front. Psychol., 22 April 2013Sec. Cognitive Science Volume 4 - 2013 | https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00201

How Conceptual Metaphors are Productive of Spatial-Graphical Expressions Timothy C. Clausner (Clausner@HRL.Com) HRL Laboratories, LLC Human Centered Systems Department, 3011 Malibu Canyon Road Malibu, CA 90049 USA Abstract The theory of conceptual metaphors is adopted in which conceptual relations are productive of linguistic meta- phorical expressions. Conceptual metaphors vary in their degree of productivity according to semantic principles. Spatial-graphical expressions of non-spatial concepts are investigated providing evidence that they are instantia- tions of metaphors. For three cases of differing productivity it is argued that the same semantic princi- ples which result in metaphor productivity for linguistic expressions also result in spatial-graphical expressions. 1 Background Language gives us words, and constructions made of words, to talk about abstract concepts. We find in space, conventional shapes and organizations of shapes which also convey abstract concepts. These representa- tions in space are typically experienced visually, but not exclusive of other experiential modalities. This paper addresses the problem of how spatial-graphical repre- sentations convey abstract meanings by means of metaphors, which allow us to understand or express abstract concepts in terms of concrete expressions, par- ticularly ordinary, relatively static, conventional devices (e.g., map legends, key pads, and clocks). Fourceville’s (1996) analysis of abstract concepts conveyed by creative images and language in advertis- ing, aims toward a theory of ‘pictorial metaphor’. Tversky (2001) treats depictions, such as maps, graph- ics, and icons as involving spatial metaphor derived from concrete world experience, across languages and cultures. Zacks, & Tversky (1999) argue that systematic correspondences between graph forms and interpreta- tion are naturally derived, not due to knowledge of explicit conventions. This paper takes a similar treat- ment of metaphor, adopting cognitive semantic theory (Clausner, 1993, 1994; Clausner & Croft, 1997; Grady; 1997; Lakoff, 1993; Lakoff & Johnson, 1980; Lakoff & Turner, 1987), which treats metaphor as conventional schemas expressive of ordinary conventional language. The author thanks the three anonymous reviewers of this paper for their helpful comments. An earlier version of this research was presented at the Seventh International Cognitive Linguistics Conference, 2001, Santa Barbara, California. In this theory of metaphor, knowledge is organized into experientially based domains; e.g., SPACE , TIME , LIVING THINGS (see Clausner & Croft, 1999, for an overview of the theory of domains in cognitive seman- tics). A conventional metaphor is a stored relation between two domains. Concepts from an abstract (tar- get) domain are systematically comprehended or expressed in terms of concepts from a different, often concrete, (source) domain. For example, MORE IS UP AND LESS IS DOWN is a conventional metaphor whose source domain UP - DOWN stands in relation to the target domain MORE - LESS . This metaphor is a semantic struc- ture which can be instantiated as linguistic expressions; e.g., rising prices, fell ill, high esteem, fell unconscious. Language expresses abstract concepts metaphorically by means of spatial and other basic perceptual concepts (Grady, 1997). Metaphors that relate spatial source do- mains to non-spatial target domains can be productive of linguistic expressions about non-spatial abstract meanings by using words having spatial meanings. The metaphor MORE IS UP is strongly implicated by investi- gations of graphs as expressions in space. Tversky, Kugelmass & Winter (1991) found that subjects as- signed interpretations to the axes of graphs, such that increasing quantity was preferentially assigned to the vertical axis, and temporal concepts were preferentially assigned to the horizontal axis. Gatis & Holyoak (1996) investigated subjects’ interpretation of graphs, finding a significant advantage when the variable being queried was assigned to the vertical axis. They argue that graphing increasing quantity in terms of vertical spatial increase is based on the metaphor MORE IS UP . Given that there is evidence for conventional metaphor being expressed in the construal of spatial graphs, this paper proposes the following hypothesis: The same cognitive principles which determine metaphor productivity for linguistic expressions also determine metaphor produc- tivity for spatial expressions. This hypothesis will be tested with respect to a specific technical characteriza- tion of metaphor productivity. Productivity in Metaphors Clausner & Croft (1997) argue that just as phonological schemas vary in their productivity of base-derived relations, so semantic schemas (i.e., meta-

This study explores how the development of the conceptual metaphor theory opened new horizons into the way language can be manipulated in the portrayal of the world and our immediate and distant environment of which news, including political news are part. Moreover, political news is the most pervasive type we continually come into contact in our daily communication. Conceptual metaphor is a relation between two conceptual domains, namely, source domain which is concrete, and target domain which is abstract. For example, ARGUMENT IS WAR. We conceptualize and understand "ARGUMENT", the target domain, in terms of "WAR", and the source domain via a process called "mapping". The goal of the study is to carry out a cognitive analysis of conceptual metaphors used in political news reports and how reports of the two newspapers construe political issues reflected in their reports. Accordingly, the study aims to provide answers to such questions as: How common are conceptual metaphors in English news reports of the online political register? What types of conceptual metaphors are used in news reports in English newspapers? How conceptual metaphors are experimentally based to human beings' life experiences? Based upon these research questions, it is hypothesized that Conceptual metaphors are argued to be as common in the news reports of the political register as they are in daily conversational language. Some types of conceptual metaphors are argued to be more common than others in the register in question. Moreover, all the conceptual metaphors are argued to have experiential bases which are related to our life experiences.
 Index Terms— conceptual metaphor, source domain, target domain, invariance principle, news reports.

The article is devoted to the issue of considering the process of metaphorization of nouns with abstract semantics (authority, fear, grief, joy, anger, dispute, life, time etc.) in relation to the theory of conceptual metaphor (J. Lakoff, M. Johnson, V.A. Uspensky, N.D. Arutyunova, Yu.D. Apresyan, E.S. Kubryakova, Yu.S. Stepanov, E. Cassirer, Z. Kövecses, etc.). According to this theory, during metaphorization, abstract nouns are conceptualized in the form of concrete ones and semantic correspondences between the source domain and the target domain are established. The article discusses issues related to the characteristic of the human brain to find correspondences between concrete and abstract objects, between material and spiritual entities and the process of metaphorization, which is a consequence of such a characteristic of the brain. The author examines in detail on the main postulates of the theory of conceptual metaphor: on the history of its creation, on the interpretation of the term “conceptual metaphor”, on the principles of comparing one target domain with several source domains and one source domain with different target domains; describes the types of hierarchical systems of cognitive metaphors; analyzes the mechanism of “constructing reality” by selecting and applying a specific source domain for a specific target domain and gives examples of “metaphorical conclusions.

The article analyzes different types of metaphors used in the media to describe the war. The purpose of the article is to identify the most frequent types of war metaphors, isolating one of the most ancient ways of actualizing the war concept ‒ a generic metaphor. The relevance of the undertaken research is determined by the appeal to various types of erased metaphors that are actively used in the media to refer to both the wars themselves and to describe the strategies and tactics of warfare, naming people who are in certain relationships during the war, as well as those events that are metaphorically presented as a war. The scientific novelty consists in the introduction into scientific circulation of the terms generic code of linguoculture and social code of linguoculture, actively involved in the descriptions of both war and civilian life, not only in the media, but also in any type of discourse. Objectives of the article: 1. To identify the specifics of the implementation of the generic code of Russian linguoculture on the example of media discourse about the war; 2. To present a classification of different types of war metaphors in the newspapers “Parliamentary Bulletin” and “Vedomosti”; 3. To correlate metaphors with symbols of Russian linguoculture. The article analyzes several types of erased metaphors, a special place among which is occupied by generic, social and theomorphic, which retain their productivity in modern media. The topic raised has not been previously addressed in the scientific literature; this is the novelty of the study. Main methods: analytical, descriptive and interpretive. The study noted ten main metaphors that actualize the war concept in the media discourse: generic, social, theomorphic, thread and theater metaphors (in which the metaphor of puppets is hidden), ritual, traditional, game. The war concept in Russian linguoculture is actualized by erased metaphors. The perspective of the study is the description of different types of metaphors in other types of discourses, individual genres, author’s language pictures of the world.

The relevance of this study lies in the ongoing debate surrounding the cognitive processing of visual metaphor within the framework of modern cognitive linguistics, particularly Conceptual Metaphor Theory (CMT). The aim of the article was to develop and test an algorithm for analysing visual metaphors based on a modified version of CMT, drawing on the ideas of Z. Kövecses and taking into account the influence of domain visualisation as well as the characteristics of relative and situational analogical mapping in cognitive processing. The study employed a comprehensive methodology that integrated the analysis of visual metaphor according to domain visualisation criteria, classical cognitive analysis of conceptual metaphor, and an analytical model grounded in the extended and modified version of CMT proposed by Z. Kövecses. The research identified that the sequential cognitive operations involved in processing unconventional visual metaphors include: establishing the visualised source and target domains of the metaphor; identifying metonymic connections in the referent and correlate that provide access to the metaphor’s conceptual domains; identifying the conventional component within the metaphor’s conceptual structure – namely, the “general-level” conceptual metaphors; identifying the main meaning foci of the sources used for conceptualising aspects of the target domains; identifying unconventional mappings – meaning components in visual metaphor that go beyond conventional conceptualisations, based on the cognitive strategies of extension, elaboration, and completion; and deriving the overall meaning of the metaphor through the integration of conventional and unconventional mappings. An approach that applies an extended version of Z. Kövecses’s Conceptual Metaphor Theory to the analysis of non-conventional fusion visual metaphors with relational mapping – one of the most cognitively complex types – enhances understanding of how metaphorical images are visualised and cognitively processed through both conventional and unconventional conceptualisations

The type and function of metaphors in Jordanian economic discourse: A critical metaphor analysis approach

The present semantic research has been performed in order to provide a cognitive and cultural explanation of conceptual metaphors in parts 20 to 30 of the Holy Qur’an. Extraction of “types of conceptual metaphors”, determination of “high frequency metaphors”, “source domains” and “target domains” is the process of conducting research using the conceptual metaphor theory. The variety of concepts of “target” and the functional frequency of “source” concepts indicate what concepts are intended in the holy Qur'an through metaphorical conceptualization. This study provides a basis for further understanding of the worldview presented in the Holy Qur'an and the possibility of determining the behavioral patterns of religion by identifying metaphors. The results of the present study represent a septenary classification of metaphors in the “empirical source domain”, containing: “social life”, “needs of the body and its activity”, “image schemas (schema-based)”, “elements of nature”, “person”, “body parts”, and “similarity-based metaphors (simile)”; Among which, the highest percentage of metaphorical conceptualization in the source domain is in “social life” and the lowest one is in the domain of “person”. Considering the fact that most of the human knowledge is about the elements and sub-domains of “social life”, Qur’anic sources in this domain have played the most role in abstracting the cultural and doctrinal concepts of religion and organizing Islamic religious experiences using the sources of this field and have been used as customary (conventional) and practical models. Accordingly, Qur'anic metaphors lead to the formation of cultural and cognitive patterns, and the “monotheistic belief system” (Qur'anic) directs human bodily experiences in metaphorical conceptualization, and this “Qur'anic worldview” can be seen as an Islamic cultural and cognitive model in the Qur'anic metaphorical schema.

In Chinese, the heart (, xn) is a popular metaphor to symbolize love.This metaphor comes from the traditional Chinese concept of the central role of the heart in the human body, which is considered the place where the strongest emotions, including love, are stored.This theory is once again reinforced through the love metaphor " tim" in Chinese.The article studies the conceptual metaphor LOVE IS HEART based on the theory of conceptual metaphor, through a survey of 300 contemporary Chinese love poems to find linguistic expressions expressing this conceptual metaphor.Based on embodied experience, the characteristics of the source domain TIM are shown through the projection model between the source domain and the target domain.

Metaphors are frequently used in everyday conversation unconsciously. People deliver the metaphoric expressions underlaid by conceptual metaphor that consists of the target and source domains. This study aims to find out the types of metaphorical expressions and analyze the conceptual metaphors underlaying the metaphorical expressions. The data were generated from Bhagavad Gita text using a corpus machine named AntConc 3.4.4w. With the corpus method and AntConc, 690 sentences containing metaphors of life were found. These data were analyzed by applying the conceptual metaphor theory of Lakoff and Johnson (2003) and Steen (2007).The result of the study shows that the metaphorical expressions of life in Bhagavad Gita are covered in all types of metaphor, they are: Structural, Ontological (along with its subsection that is Personification), and Orientational metaphors. In Bhagavad Gita, there are 24 conceptual metaphors that underlay the metaphorical expressions. The most frequently found conceptual metaphors were LIFE IS AN ENTITY, LIFE IS A JOURNEY and LIFE IS A CONTINUOUS ACTIVITY.

In traditional rhetoric, metaphor is simply a rhetorical device used to make the mentioned things more understandable. It was not until 1980 that two cognitive linguists, George Lakoff and Mark Johnson (1980) argued in Metaphors We Live By that the essence of metaphor is the cognitive mechanism by which abstract things are explained through concrete things, shifting the study of metaphor from the linguistic level to the cognitive level. Later on, Lakoff (1996) analyzed political metaphor from a cognitive perspective for the first time in Moral Politics, which drives the upsurge of research on conceptual metaphor in political discourse. Political discourse usually uses metaphor to conceptualize the political ideas and issues it aims to disseminate, and the use of conceptual metaphor is closely related to national culture, so the translation of conceptual metaphor has become the key to the overseas publicity of political discourse. On March 5, 2023, Premier Li Keqiang delivered Chinese Government Work Report at the opening meeting of the first session of the 14th National People’s Congress. After reading the official translation on www.china.org.cn, the authors find that the Report contains a wealth of conceptual metaphors, and whether the translation of these metaphors is appropriate or not will affect the accuracy of people’s understanding of the Report. Based on Lakoff and Johnson’s (1980) conceptual metaphor theory and Group’s (2007) metaphor identification procedure, this paper takes the 2023 Chinese Government Work Report and its English translation version on www.china.org.cn as the research corpus. Through manual screening, classification and statistics of conceptual metaphors, this paper explores ten types of conceptual metaphor models, namely human metaphor, journey metaphor, war metaphor, cultural metaphor, architecture metaphor, water metaphor, animal and plant metaphor, machine metaphor, line metaphor as well as object metaphor. Based on Xiao’s (2005) cognitive strategy of metaphor translation, this paper also analyzes the translation of ten types of conceptual metaphors. This paper attempts to explore the following three research questions: (1) What are the types of metaphorical patterns in the Report? (2) How are the conceptual metaphors used in the Report and what cultural connotations and images are conveyed by them? (3) How to effectively translate conceptual metaphors in the Report to achieve a better understanding of the target audience? Microsoft Office (Word and Excel) is used as a statistical tool and a mapping tool to count specific conceptual metaphor categories and record typical metaphor keywords, and visualize the data of the proportion of various types. This paper tries to summarize and analyze the cultural connotations and images conveyed by the conceptual metaphors, so as to provide help for the English translation of Chinese political discourse and promote the international dissemination of Chinese political ideas. Through the analysis of conceptual metaphors, we can judge that although the political concepts in the Report is abstract, conceptual metaphors can express them more concretely and more easily understood by the audience through the mapping from the source domain to the target domain.

The linguistic literature has shown that metaphor provokes evaluative meanings, but it is unclear how different types of metaphor, as well as different genres of discourse influence the realization of such meanings. To partially answer this question, our study aims to investigate the relationship between conceptual metaphors and evaluation in Australian broadsheet and tabloid articles on the AUKUS alliance, the trilateral security partnership between Australia, the U.K., and the U.S. The data comprise all Australian news and opinion articles gathered from Nexis Uni through the University of Granada’s e-library between September 15, 2021, and October 31, 2021. The study employs a parameter-based approach to evaluation and its methodology involves the annotation of metaphors according to the parameters of creativity/conventionality, as well as the examination of their source and target domains. The quantitative analysis indicates that there is a connection between the types of metaphors (conventional and creative) and the characteristics of their evaluation (polarity and explicitness), which are affected by the genre of the corpus and the topic of the content where the metaphors appear. Additionally, the corpus shows that negative emotivity is a prevalent evaluative component of metaphors in both newspapers. The qualitative analysis demonstrates that conceptualizations of metaphors alternate between biological and mechanistic images of the world, with the dominant metaphor domains being almost unilaterally used in both broadsheets and tabloids. The implications of the study suggest that the complex relationship between metaphor and evaluation should be interpreted in light of the text’s genre and topic rather than separately.