Different Classes Of Words Research Articles

The category of aspect and numbers as determinants of verb nature of the hybrid verb forms (based on verbal nouns in Polish and Ukrainian)

The article deals with different approaches to identify the notions of verbal nouns. The main attention is given to the terms for the nomination of the verbal nouns and their classification. Verbal nouns are a clear example of hybridity as they combine categories typical for different classes of words. The verb nature of these formation is proved by the grammatical categories of aspect and number. Thus, two types of verb nouns are distinguished: predicate nouns, which are used only in the singular and imitate aspectual semantics, and subject nouns, which accordingly lose their aspect and can be used in the plural, they are divided into several semantic subtypes: terms, mode of action, condition, etc. The results of this comparison with examples from the modern Ukrainian and Polish literature are presented in the article, in particular regarding new formed examples, which are used in the Internet space.

Hybrid verb forms in Polish and Ukrainian

Hybrid verb forms constitute a relevant aspect that has been little studied by linguists. The paper discusses hybrid verb forms in order to determine structural and semantic differences against the background of Polish and Ukrainian. The hybridity of verb forms lies in the formation of parts of speech that combine categories characteristic of different classes of words, such as voice, tense, refl exivity, case, number. Such forms include the verbal noun, adjectival participle, impersonal predicative forms ending with -no, -to, and infi nitive. The use of the comparative analysis made it possible to separate common and different features in both languages. Polish and Ukrainian are characterised by different degrees of convergence with verb or noun, in particular due to the category of refl exivity. The paper states that all these mixed parts of speech are united by the category of aspect, which relates primarily to verb. The paper also analyses the functioning of hybrid verb forms in modern Polish and Ukrainian.

ГРЕЦЬКИЙ СЛОВОТВІР: ОСОБЛИВОСТІ ПРЕФІКСАЦІЇ

The article analyzes the features of Greek prefixation as one of the ways of affix word formation. In order to reveal the complete picture concerning the origin of specific prefixes, their morphological and semantic changes in comparison with the ancient Greek language, and to reveal the emergence of new affixes, besides the synchronic the diachronic approach was used in the work. On the basis of the main theoretical concepts of word-forming paradigmatics several word-forming types and paradigms, possible structural models of derivatives in Greek are considered. Greek prefixes are divided into two types: inseparable and autonomous in origin (homonymous prepositions or adverbs that function independently in Greek). Among the autonomous units prefixes of prepositional origin are the most numerous. The process of prefixization is divided into pure prefixation and prefixation-suffixational / inflectional method. Greek pure prefixation is identified with compounding due to the same formal and functional features. Derivatives formed by the other method usually transmit the forming base into another grammatical category with the appropriate lexical meaning. The process of prefixization depends on both prefixes and the forming stem. Greek forming stems of prefixational derivatives are classified into free and bound. Prefixes can be combined with different classes of words. The greatest variety of prefixes of prepositional origin, as noted in the paper, is combined with verbs, and inseparable particles – mostly with noun bases. Due to the secondary derivation a double prefixation of the forming stem can take place. Besides the systematization of the main features of Greek prefixes, the article analyzes the evolution of prefixization on the basis of five types of prefixes. In the result of reconsideration, as noted in the paper, prefixes or prefixoids were formed on the basis of both grammatical and lexical elements.

Fine-grained neural decoding with distributed word representations

fMRI word decoding refers to decode what the human brain is thinking by interpreting functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) scans from people watching or listening to words, representing a sort of mind-reading technology. Existing works decoding words from imaging data have been largely limited to concrete nouns from a relatively small number of semantic categories. Moreover, such studies use different word-stimulus presentation paradigms and different computational models, lacking a comprehensive understanding of the influence of different factors on fMRI word decoding. In this paper, we present a large-scale evaluation of eight word embedding models and their combinations for decoding fine-grained fMRI data associated with three classes of words recorded from three stimulus-presentation paradigms. Specifically, we investigate the following research questions: (1) How does the brain-image decoder perform on different classes of words? (2) How does the brain-image decoder perform in different stimulus-presentation paradigms? (3) How well does each word embedding model allow us to decode neural activation patterns in the human brain? Furthermore, we analyze the most informative voxels associated with different classes of words, stimulus-presentation paradigms and word embedding models to explore their neural basis. The results have shown the following: (1) Different word classes can be decoded most effectively with different word embedding models. Concrete nouns and verbs are more easily distinguished than abstract nouns and verbs. (2) Among the three stimulus-presentation paradigms (picture, sentence and word clouds), the picture paradigm achieves the highest decoding accuracy, followed by the sentence paradigm. (3) Among the eight word embedding models, the model that encodes visual information obtains the best performance, followed by models that encode textual and contextual information. (4) Compared to concrete nouns, which activate mostly vision-related brain regions, abstract nouns activate broader brain regions such as the visual, language and default-mode networks. Moreover, both the picture paradigm and the model that encodes visual information have stronger associations with vision-related brain regions than other paradigms and word embedding models, respectively.

The acquisition of different classes of words in Spanish children with Down syndrome

PurposeThe primary aim of this study was to analyze the acquisition of different classes of words in Spanish-speaking children with Down syndrome (DS), with special emphasis on nouns and verbs. A second objective was to compare the results obtained with those reported by Checa et al. (2016), who used a different measure to study vocabulary composition. MethodWe studied 108 children with DS and 108 children with typical development (TD), with mental ages between 9 and 29 months (DS M = 21;26 months;days, TD M = 20;23) and chronological ages between 8;24 and 68;19 months;days (mean = 41;11 and 20;19 for DS and TD, respectively). Children were matched individually for size of productive vocabulary and gender. Data were gathered using the MacArthur-Bates CDIs, adapted to the profile of children with DS (the CDI-Down). Relative proportions were used as the measure of vocabulary. ResultsThe results differed from those obtained by Checa et al. (2016) when using absolute proportions to examine vocabulary composition. The most significant difference was the trend among children with DS to produce fewer verbs and closed-class words (articles, prepositions, pronouns, conjunctions, and auxiliaries). There were no differences in the production of nouns and social words. ConclusionsThe tendency of children with DS to produce fewer verbs and closed-class words could be due to difficulties with morphology and syntax. This underlines the importance of morphosyntactic skills for learning these classes of words. The methodological and clinical implications of the results are discussed.

Natural Language Acquisition and Grounding for Embodied Robotic Systems

We present a cognitively plausible novel framework capable of learning the grounding in visual semantics and the grammar of natural language commands given to a robot in a table top environment. The input to the system consists of video clips of a manually controlled robot arm, paired with natural language commands describing the action. No prior knowledge is assumed about the meaning of words, or the structure of the language, except that there are different classes of words (corresponding to observable actions, spatial relations, and objects and their observable properties). The learning process automatically clusters the continuous perceptual spaces into concepts corresponding to linguistic input. A novel relational graph representation is used to build connections between language and vision. As well as the grounding of language to perception, the system also induces a set of probabilistic grammar rules. The knowledge learned is used to parse new commands involving previously unseen objects.

The Composition of Early Vocabulary in Spanish Children With Down Syndrome and Their Peers With Typical Development.

There are very few studies, and at present none in Spanish, on vocabulary composition in children with Down syndrome (DS). Nor has the topic been widely assessed in Spanish-speaking children with typical development (TD). This study analyzed the composition of early vocabularies in a large sample of Spanish-speaking children with DS and compared it with that of children with TD. We studied 108 children with DS and 108 children with TD with mental ages between 8 and 29 months, matched for size of productive vocabulary and gender. The MacArthur-Bates Communicative Development Inventories (Fenson et al., 1993, 2007), adapted to the language development profile of children with DS, were used. The categories examined were nouns, predicates, closed-class words, and social words. The performance of children with DS was similar to that of children with TD with the same vocabulary size. The only significant difference was the larger production of nouns by children with DS. The trends of development in the different classes of words were also similar. The strategies used by children with DS to learn vocabulary may be similar to those used by children with TD in the first stages of language learning.

A Cognitive Neural Architecture Able to Learn and Communicate through Natural Language.

Communicative interactions involve a kind of procedural knowledge that is used by the human brain for processing verbal and nonverbal inputs and for language production. Although considerable work has been done on modeling human language abilities, it has been difficult to bring them together to a comprehensive tabula rasa system compatible with current knowledge of how verbal information is processed in the brain. This work presents a cognitive system, entirely based on a large-scale neural architecture, which was developed to shed light on the procedural knowledge involved in language elaboration. The main component of this system is the central executive, which is a supervising system that coordinates the other components of the working memory. In our model, the central executive is a neural network that takes as input the neural activation states of the short-term memory and yields as output mental actions, which control the flow of information among the working memory components through neural gating mechanisms. The proposed system is capable of learning to communicate through natural language starting from tabula rasa, without any a priori knowledge of the structure of phrases, meaning of words, role of the different classes of words, only by interacting with a human through a text-based interface, using an open-ended incremental learning process. It is able to learn nouns, verbs, adjectives, pronouns and other word classes, and to use them in expressive language. The model was validated on a corpus of 1587 input sentences, based on literature on early language assessment, at the level of about 4-years old child, and produced 521 output sentences, expressing a broad range of language processing functionalities.

Design of Sentiment Analysis System using Polarity Classification Technique

Twitter is a medium that we can use for communication. All posted tweets we can store in one location and create archive. Archive contains new and old tweets. Now we can start the analyzation on archive tweets that’s we can design effective sentiment analysis system. This paper main aim is to determine parts of speech opinion words using polarity classification technique and support vector machine learning algorithm. Surveys of methods are used in various levels of sentiment analysis. It does analyze the tweets information in limited levels of content only. Now in this paper we design new sentiment analysis tool using polarity classification technique. Polarity classification techniques discover top 20emoticons, learning different classes of words and other features information. These techniques perform in depth tweets analysis. It does provide better analysis results compare to previous methods.

Stochastic Model for the Vocabulary Growth in Natural Languages

We propose a stochastic model for the number of different words in a given database which incorporates the dependence on the database size and historical changes. The main feature of our model is the existence of two different classes of words: (i) a finite number of core-words which have higher frequency and do not affect the probability of a new word to be used; and (ii) the remaining virtually infinite number of noncore-words which have lower frequency and once used reduce the probability of a new word to be used in the future. Our model relies on a careful analysis of the google-ngram database of books published in the last centuries and its main consequence is the generalization of Zipf's and Heaps' law to two scaling regimes. We confirm that these generalizations yield the best simple description of the data among generic descriptive models and that the two free parameters depend only on the language but not on the database. From the point of view of our model the main change on historical time scales is the composition of the specific words included in the finite list of core-words, which we observe to decay exponentially in time with a rate of approximately 30 words per year for English.

Word Class and Context Affect Alpha-Band Oscillatory Dynamics in an Older Population

Differences in the oscillatory EEG dynamics of reading open class (OC) and closed class (CC) words have previously been found (Bastiaansen et al., 2005) and are thought to reflect differences in lexical-semantic content between these word classes. In particular, the theta-band (4–7 Hz) seems to play a prominent role in lexical-semantic retrieval. We tested whether this theta effect is robust in an older population of subjects. Additionally, we examined how the context of a word can modulate the oscillatory dynamics underlying retrieval for the two different classes of words. Older participants (mean age 55) read words presented in either syntactically correct sentences or in a scrambled order (“scrambled sentence”) while their EEG was recorded. We performed time–frequency analysis to examine how power varied based on the context or class of the word. We observed larger power decreases in the alpha (8–12 Hz) band between 200–700 ms for the OC compared to CC words, but this was true only for the scrambled sentence context. We did not observe differences in theta power between these conditions. Context exerted an effect on the alpha and low beta (13–18 Hz) bands between 0 and 700 ms. These results suggest that the previously observed word class effects on theta power changes in a younger participant sample do not seem to be a robust effect in this older population. Though this is an indirect comparison between studies, it may suggest the existence of aging effects on word retrieval dynamics for different populations. Additionally, the interaction between word class and context suggests that word retrieval mechanisms interact with sentence-level comprehension mechanisms in the alpha-band.

The processing of verbs and nouns in neural networks: Insights from synthetic brain imaging

The paper presents a computational model of language in which linguistic abilities evolve in organisms that interact with an environment. Each individual’s behavior is controlled by a neural network and we study the consequences in the network’s internal functional organization of learning to process different classes of words. Agents are selected for reproduction according to their ability to manipulate objects and to understand nouns (objects’ names) and verbs (manipulation tasks). The weights of the agents’ neural networks are evolved using a genetic algorithm. Synthetic brain imaging techniques are then used to examine the functional organization of the neural networks. Results show that nouns produce more integrated neural activity in the sensory-processing hidden layer, while verbs produce more integrated synaptic activity in the layer where sensory information is integrated with proprioceptive input. Such findings are qualitatively compared with human brain imaging data that indicate that nouns activate more the posterior areas of the brain related to sensory and associative processing, while verbs activate more the anterior motor areas.

The Effects of Four Communication Modes on the Structure of Language Used During Cooperative Problem Solving

Summary This paper reports the analysis of the verbal output of 20 two-man teams of high school boys who communicated through four different channels to solve problems cooperatively. Each word of the protocols was assigned to one of six linguistic classes based on Fries's analysis of the structure of English. Results indicate significant shifts in the relative proportions of the different classes of words as a function of mode of communication. Ss communicating by voice on the average used more pronouns and more function words than did Ss who communicated via handwriting or typewriting. Ss who used handwriting on the average used fewer pronouns and fewer verbs and verb derivatives than did Ss in all other modes of communication.

On Russian Accentuation

In a paper that was published in 19731 I presented an extended treatment of the accentual patterns found in different classes of words. I have since had occasion to rethink some of the proposals made in that paper especially in the light of very helpful criticisms from my colleague Paul Kiparsky. This criticism has led us to undertake the preparation of a joint study outlining our views in detail. The present communication is based in large measure on that study and may be regarded as a preliminary report summarizing the most striking of our results.

Last Words: A Test of Authorship for Greek Writers

In recent years a number of tests of authorship have been developed. Such tests are based on the examination of some habit, generally one which embodies the result of a choice frequently confronting any author in his composition. The test described in this paper is based upon the habit of placing, as the last word in a sentence, different classes of words.

The essence of universals

Since it is evident that discourse cannot be formed by means of a vocab ulary of proper-names only, the theory of the other constituents of language which includes the theory of universals, is connected with the classification of any vocabulary and with the description of different classes of words as to their significations. Many words are modifications of nouns and verbs, but they occur in a changed form as nouns and verbs too. Most words denote features of actual entities but not actual entities as do proper-names. Further we need for the completion of dis course the so-called logical vocabulary of any language which contains connectives or 'basic articles such as 'is', 'not', 'and', 'or', 'unless', 'if, 'than', 'neither', 'nor', 'some', 'all' '!). Plato in his Theory of Ideas postulated for the meaning of some con stituents of language reality the only kind of reality in the universe and if we begin with the doctrines of Greek Thinkers we may write History of Philosophy in terms of the discussion of the meaning of those constituents of language, which do not suffice, if used as single words, to denote actual entities. The discussion is not finished until to-day, and modern Philosophers think sometimes to conclude it by the remark that all differences of opinion may be reducible to differences in the definition of the concept 'universal' which is arbitrary in principle 2). Against Plato's opinion it may be pointed out that he has not seen that the universe which is the object of his theory is a universe of discourse only. His ideas are in fact transitory phenomena because human discourse is a transitory phenomenon created by man and a function of his mind. The so-called ideas are terms of human discourse and abstract in so far as they were undefined as to position in time and space, but not 'eternal objects', as Platonists maintain. If we speak on Universals, it must be noted, that the word 'universal' is