Differences In Speed Research Articles

A traffic dynamic operation risk assessment method using driving behaviors and traffic flow Data: An empirical analysis

Presently, traffic safety analysis is mainly based on accident-based indicators, but they are incidental and small probability events, making safety analysis based on accident-related data difficult to achieve a comprehensive application in network size, and to realize risk assessment before accidents occur. To this end, this study innovatively develops a metric named Traffic Dynamic Operation Risk (TDOR) based on aggressive driving behaviors (ADBs) and traffic flow data for traffic safety evaluation. And Non-Negative Matrix Factorization (NMF) is adopted to explore the quantitative risk under the coupling of multiple risk factors. The results show that: 1) segments with high TDOR are always concentrated in a certain area and in a spatial distribution of Gaussian, and the peaks of these distributions are almost the assesses of transportation hubs or complex intersections; 2) traffic volume and coefficient of speed variation are the significant risk factors at ordinary sections and branches, while traffic volume and speed difference between upstream are the largest contributions at intersections; 3) roads with more accidents are associated with a higher TDOR, but the relationship between the two is not completely linearly correlated. The experimental results show that it is reasonable and feasible to use ADBs and traffic flow parameters to quantify traffic safety risks. Compared with other matrix factorization methods, the importance of variables based on NMF is more interpretable and more consistent with the change pattern of risk variables. The method proposed in this paper can change the previous traffic risk assessment pattern based on accident-related indicators and provide a basis for pre-accident risk prevention.

Unraveling Spatial–Temporal Patterns and Heterogeneity of On-Ramp Vehicle Merging Behavior: Evidence from the exiD Dataset

Understanding the spatiotemporal characteristics of merging behavior is crucial for the advancement of autonomous driving technology. This study aims to analyze on-ramp vehicle merging patterns, and investigate how various factors, such as merging scenarios and vehicle types, influence driving behavior. Initially, a framework based on a high-definition (HD) map is developed to extract trajectory information in a meticulous manner. Subsequently, eight distinct merging patterns are identified, with a thorough examination of their behavioral characteristics from both temporal and spatial perspectives. Merging behaviors are examined temporally, encompassing the sequence of events from approaching the on-ramp to completing the merge. This study specifically analyzes the target lane’s spatial characteristics, evaluates the merging distance (ratio), investigates merging speed distributions, compares merging patterns and identifies high-risk situations. Utilizing the latest aerial dataset, exiD, which provides HD map data, the study presents novel findings. Specifically, it uncovers patterns where the following vehicle in the target lane chooses to accelerate and overtake rather than cutting in front of the merging vehicle, resulting in Time-to-Collision (TTC) values of less than 2.5 s, indicating a significantly higher risk. Moreover, the study finds that differences in merging speed, distance, and duration can be disregarded in patterns where vehicles are present both ahead and behind, or solely ahead, suggesting these patterns could be integrated for simulation to streamline analysis and model development. Additionally, the practice of truck platooning has a significant impact on vehicle merging behavior. Overall, this study enhances the understanding of merging behavior, facilitating autonomous vehicles’ ability to comprehend and adapt to merging scenarios. Furthermore, this research is significant in improving driving safety, optimizing traffic management, and enabling the effective integration of autonomous driving systems with human drivers.

Study on rock-breaking mechanism and bit adaptive characteristics under the action of claw-toe impregnated diamond bit

In order to overcome the ingrained belief that the impregnated diamond bit primarily achieves rock-breaking via grinding and micro-cutting and to have a better understanding of the drilling mechanism of the bit, in this work, aiming at the inherent weakness of rock cracks, a claw-toe impregnated diamond bit (CTB) with a self-regenerative structure is innovatively designed. The concept is that the structure of the bit can actively induce the development of cracks inside the rock or create cracks in the dense rock. Through simulation, the differences in hole bottom morphology, drilling efficiency, rotational speed, torque and rock-breaking vibration between conventional bit (CB) and CTB (CTB with two sets of tooth units (CTB-2) and CTB with three sets of tooth units (CTB-3)) are analyzed, and the crack propagation and stress-strain field distribution characteristics of rock are compared when the tooth units of bit (TUBs) press into rock and cause initial damage to rock. Through field tests, the superiority of the claw-toe impregnated diamond bit (CTB) and its rock-breaking mechanism is verified. Compared with the conventional bit (CB), the simulation results show that the claw-toe impregnated diamond bit (CTB) can achieve efficient drilling with smaller rock-breaking torque, more stable rotational speed, and a more apparent shear effect on rock. The mean vibration reaction force of the claw-toe impregnated diamond bit with two sets of tooth units (CTB-2) and claw-toe impregnated diamond bit with three sets of tooth units (CTB-3) increases by 0.78 times and 0.43 times, respectively, and the mean rock-breaking torque decreases by 10.66% and 21.81%, respectively. The structure of the claw-toe impregnated diamond bit (CTB) can force rock to produce more tensile stress concentration areas, induce rock crack initiation, and accelerate rock failure. Field tests show that the service life of the claw-toe impregnated diamond bit with three sets of tooth units (CTB-3) is 1.9 times longer than the mean service life of the conventional bit (CB). Furthermore, the claw-toe impregnated diamond bit (CTB) has obvious structural advantages: it will self-sharpen its structure, maintain its best drilling structure in subsequent drilling, and tear up rock, resulting in better drilling performance.

Influence of Processing Temperature and Strain Rate on the Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Magnesium Alloys Processed by Single-Pass Differential Speed Rolling

Magnesium-based alloys show significant promise for widespread applications owing to their lightweight nature and improved mechanical properties achieved through grain refinement via hot rolling. This investigation focuses on Mg-xAl-yCa-zMn (AXM alloys), pre-heated to temperatures of 350, 400, and 450 °C and processed via both single-pass differential speed rolling (DSR) and conventional rolling (CR). The key findings reveal the interplay between processing temperature, strain rate during single-pass rolling, and an innovative approach for incorporating varying amounts of Ca, influencing grain size, quantity of dynamic recrystallization (DRX) grains, and overall mechanical properties, including strength and ductility. A noteworthy observation is the positive correlation between an increase in the total reduction during hot rolling and a higher fraction of DRXed grains. This leads to a significant reduction in average grain size, diminishing from 60.3 ± 54.3 μm to 19.5 ± 14.2 μm at 40%, nearly a third the size of T4 grains (the initial homogenized microstructure of the AXM alloys). The resultant material strength experiences a doubling from an average of 125 ± 10.2 MPa (T4) to 260 ± 25.8 MPa (DSR rolled at 40%) for the AXM alloys with potential improvement in the ductility depending on rolling speed conditions. This study also aims to analyze the combination of rolling temperature, rolling speed, thickness reduction, speed difference and Ca content implemented across a wide range of temperatures and strain rates to provide a holistic approach to the processing parameters affecting the microstructure and mechanical properties of AXM alloys. Furthermore, this study provides a deeper understanding of DRX mechanisms, including continuous DRX (CDRX), discontinuous DRX (DDRX), and twinning induced DRX (TDRX), while each of these mechanisms plays a distinct role in the overall enhancement of formability and performance of magnesium alloys.

Multiple methods for acoustic emission source location in metal waveguides

Research on sound source location, which is widely used in engineering, is an important topic in acoustic emission (AE) technology. Traditional double-ended location methods have certain limitations, such as sound sources being located between two sensors, a single application scenario and possible time delays. In this study, three theoretically feasible location methods were proposed and experimentally verified based on AE propagation theory to test the accuracy of the AE source location and explore single/double-sensor line location in metal waveguides. The experiments measured the propagation speed of longitudinal and transverse waves in the waveguide and verified the feasibilities of the three acoustic source location methods based on waveform analysis, with waveform matching using the wave range and wave speed differences. The experimental results show a location error of less than 3% for the double-ended and double wave-speed methods and less than 6% for the double-waveguide and reflective-surface types.

Alteration of shoaling behavior and dysbiosis in the gut of medaka (Oryzias latipes) exposed to 2-μm polystyrene microplastics

There is global concern that microplastics may harm aquatic life. Here, we examined the effects of fine polystyrene microplastics (PS-MPs, 2-μm diameter, 0.1 mg/L, 2.5 × 107 particles/L) on the behavior and the microbiome (linked to brain–gut interaction) of a fish model using medaka, Oryzias latipes. We found that shoaling behavior was reduced in PS-MP-exposed medaka compared with control fish during the exposure period, but it recovered during a depuration period. There was no difference in swimming speed between the PS-MP-exposed and control groups during the exposure period. Analysis of the dominant bacterial population (those comprising ≥1% of the total bacterial population) in the gut of fish showed that exposure to PS-MPs tended to increase the relative abundance of the phylum Fusobacteria and the genus Vibrio. Furthermore, structural-equation modeling of gut bacteria on the basis of machine-learning data estimated strong relationship involved in the reduction of the functional bacterial species of minority (<1% of the total bacterial population) such as the genera Muribaculum (an undefined role), Aquaspirillum (a candidate for nitrate metabolism and magnetotactics), and Clostridium and Phascolarctobacterium (potential producers of short-chain fatty acids, influencing behavior by affecting levels of neurotransmitters) as a group of gut bacteria in association with PS-MP exposure. Our results suggest that fish exposure to fine microplastics may cause dysbiosis and ultimately cause social behavior disorders linked to brain–gut interactions. This effect could be connected to reduction of fish fitness in the ecosystem and reduced fish survival.

The control method for ship tracking when navigating through narrow and curved sections

A track control method is proposed to solve the problem of manual steering difficulties in narrow and curved sections. The performance of a ship heading controller is affected by various factors, such as delay of the ship steering gear, external environmental disturbances, and variations in ship's speed. Firstly, a Smith optimal PID heading controller is designed. Then, a speed control method based on dichotomous method is proposed to accurately control ship speed and improve the rudder efficiency. Finally, a track control method based on model prediction and feedback compensation is proposed, considering the coupling relationship between course control and speed control. The Lantang Channel is selected as the experimental water area, and comparative simulation experiments are carried out under static water and environmental disturbance. The pre-planned route information is taken as input, and the target course at the current moment is calculated by the guidance method. The target course is used as the input of the course controller to calculate the rudder angle to control the ship's motion, and the new ship position is compared with the planned route information. The above steps are repeated to track the planned route. In order to make the ship pass the curve smoothly, the target speed of the control point is preset according to the sailing convention of decelerating first and accelerating later, and the variable speed time point and variable telegraph are solved by the dichotomy. The results are as follows: (1) The maximum track deviation and speed deviation of the Smith-OP PID are 2 m and 0.21 kn, respectively, without considering environmental interference. The maximum track deviation of the traditional PID is 8 m. (2) The maximum track deviation and speed deviation of the Smith-OP PID are 25 m and 0.27 kn, respectively, under the set environmental interference. The maximum track deviation of the traditional PID is 49 m. (3) The track control method is consistent with the practical practices of "deceleration before acceleration" and "hanging high and taking low". In summary, the track control method can be well applied to narrow and curved sections, and provide a theoretical basis for subsequent research on autonomous navigation and intelligent ships.

Doppler sonar records of fish movement through a strong tidal stream: 3-months of observations from Grand Passage Nova Scotia

Coastal passages with strong tidal streams present potential for renewable energy generation with in-stream hydrokinetic turbines. However, there are concerns that these systems will lead to environmental impacts when marine life interact with moving turbine blades. We explore measurements of fish movement using Doppler current profilers as a way of quantifying the frequency of such interactions. Fish are detected in Doppler sonar data using calibrated backscatter levels in each of the four acoustic beams; by reprocessing un-averaged data it is possible to extract both fish and water velocities independently. We analyzed three months of Doppler sonar data collected in Grand Passage Nova Scotia from September until December 2014. The data show fish detections in large numbers for only a few days on three occasions at the deployment site. Most of the observations show fish moving at the same speed as the water but there are times when there is significant difference in fish and water speeds.

The relationship among swing speed and strength and asymmetry of lower limbs of college baseball hitters

&lt;p&gt;目的：本研究旨在檢視大專棒球打者之大腿中部等長拉力測驗 (isometric mid-thighpull test, IMTP ) 的肌力表現以及其雙側差異與揮棒速度的關聯。方法：大學棒球野手20 名，進行 IMTP 與揮棒速度測驗後，依照其絕對力量對稱指數值分為低 (LSI)、中 (MSI)、高 (HSI) 力量對稱組，比較三組在揮棒速度與力量表現的差別，以及分析全體及分組在變項之間的關係。結果：全體參與者的力量峰值與揮棒速度有顯著的關係 (p &lt; .05)。各組間在揮棒速度、力量的峰值和發力率皆無顯著的差異。HIS 的力量表現與球速有正相關，而 LSI 則相反。各組的發力率、力量峰值間有不同的正向關聯：HIS 的力量峰值與 250 毫秒的發力率有關，MSI 的各分段的發力率幾乎都有所關聯，LSI 的 150 毫秒發力率與力量峰值有顯著的關係。結論：下肢等長拉力的峰值越大，揮棒速度越快。不同程度的力量不對稱性，會有不同的力量發展型態以及與揮棒速度的關係。&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Purpose: The presented study aimed to examine the relationship between isometric mid-thigh-pull test (IMTP) and swing speed in college baseball hitters. Methods: Twenty college fielders participated and implemented the tests of IMTP and swing speed. They then were divided into low (LSI), medium (MSI), and high (HSI) force symmetry groups according to their absolute force symmetry index values. The differences in swing speed and IMTP performances were compared between three groups, and the patterns of relationship in variables for overall and groups were analyzed. Results: There was a significant relationship between peak force and swing speed (p &lt; .05). No significant difference was found between groups in swing speed and IMTP performances. HSI and LSI have different relationships between force and ball speed in which the HSI has positive relationship while reverse for LSI. The relation between force development rate and peak force value were varied in groups in which the HSI had related peak force value and force development rate of 250ms, the MSI had relations in most force development rates, and the LSI had significant relation between force development rate of 150ms and peak force value. Conclusion: The greater the peak isometric midthigh pull force of the lower body, the faster the swing. Different degrees of force asymmetry will have different force development patterns and relationships with swing speed.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;p&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;

An SMC-Based Accurate and Robust Load Speed Control Method for Elastic Servo System

In this paper, a modified sliding mode speed controller is designed in order to improve the load speed control performance of an elastic motor drive system with internal and external disturbances. Firstly, based on the load speed deviation and its first-order and second-order differentials, a two-dimensional sliding surface function is presented. The parameters of the sliding surface are determined by a novel particle swarm optimization (PSO) method. The method has improved inertia weights and evaluation functions, which can improve the accuracy and efficiency of the parameter search and enhance the immunity and robustness of the system. Secondly, on the basis of the integral of time-weighted absolute error (ITAE) criterion, the parameters of the exponential approach law are determined, which improves the tracking accuracy. Finally, the designed sliding mode control (SMC) with high tracking accuracy, fast dynamics, and strong robustness is verified by both simulations and experiments.

The Effect of Arrow Spacing and Blinking Speed Difference on Driver's Visual Perception and Cognitive Functioning in an Augmented Reality Information Delivery Method of Head-Up Display

The Effect of Arrow Spacing and Blinking Speed Difference on Driver's Visual Perception and Cognitive Functioning in an Augmented Reality Information Delivery Method of Head-Up Display

Effects of speed difference on injury severity of freeway rear-end crashes: Insights from correlated joint random parameters bivariate probit models and temporal instability

Rear-end crashes particularly on freeways are the most frequent type of collisions causing many injuries, damage and congestion. This paper investigates the impact of varying speed differences between following and leading vehicles on injury severity in two-vehicle rear-end crashes. It develops three groups of correlated joint random parameters bivariate probit models with heterogeneity in means. The rear-end crash data from 2019 to 2021 on Interstate freeways in Florida are utilized, and categorized into periods before, during, and after the COVID-19 pandemic. The study considers two potential injury severity outcomes: no injury and injury/fatality, for both drivers involved in these crashes. The findings indicate that a range of variables, including driver, vehicle, roadway, environmental, crash, and temporal attributes, significantly influence the injury severity outcomes for drivers in both following and leading vehicles. Demonstrating superior goodness-of-fit, the proposed approach sheds light on interactive unobserved heterogeneity, captured through heterogeneity in means and significant correlations among random parameters. The study observes critical influences on the injury severity outcomes of both drivers, with significant factors such as gender, age, vehicle type, weather conditions, lighting, and time of day. Furthermore, the results substantiate the heightened risk outcomes associated with greater speed differences and the period of the COVID-19 pandemic. These findings yield further insights into the risk mechanisms of two-vehicle rear-end crashes and offer guidance for the development of effective safety countermeasures.

Effects of global warming on drought onset in China

This study investigated the effects of warming on the drought onset in China using meteorological data and soil moisture data from 1980 to 2020. The variation characteristics of drought onset time and onset speed were analyzed systematically. The differences in drought onset time and onset speed during the period 1995–2020 and the period 1980–1994 were compared, and possible impact factors were analyzed. Results indicated that the spatial distribution of drought onset time decreased with an increase in regional wetness in China. In arid regions, onset time at 73 % of sites was over 35 days, and about 13 % was among 60–90 days. In semi-arid and sub-humid regions, the onset time was 25–40 days, and in humid regions, it was 20–30 days. After 1994, namely the significant temperature rise period, the onset time has remarkably shortened in parts of the southern Northeast, North China, the eastern Northwest, the western Southwest, the middle of Tibet, the lower reaches of the Yangtze River, and the coastal region of South China. The shortening was most obvious in sub-humid regions. The greater the warming magnitude, the wetter the region, the faster the drought onset speed. Drought onset speed (γ) was higher in the southern humid region than that in the northern region, and γ for southern Northeast China, northern North China, and eastern Northwest China was higher than that for the rest of North China. After 1994, drought onset speed was accelerated in most regions, especially in the semi-arid and sub-humid regions with precipitation in the range of 300–600 mm. Under the combined effect of increased evapotranspiration and reduced precipitation, the region has been the hot spot with increased drought speed after obvious warming in China.

Developmental Changes in Genome Replication Progression in Pluripotent versus Differentiated Human Cells.

DNA replication is a fundamental process ensuring the maintenance of the genome each time cells divide. This is particularly relevant early in development when cells divide profusely, later giving rise to entire organs. Here, we analyze and compare the genome replication progression in human embryonic stem cells, induced pluripotent stem cells, and differentiated cells. Using single-cell microscopic approaches, we map the spatio-temporal genome replication as a function of chromatin marks/compaction level. Furthermore, we mapped the replication timing of subchromosomal tandem repeat regions and interspersed repeat sequence elements. Albeit the majority of these genomic repeats did not change their replication timing from pluripotent to differentiated cells, we found developmental changes in the replication timing of rDNA repeats. Comparing single-cell super-resolution microscopic data with data from genome-wide sequencing approaches showed comparable numbers of replicons and large overlap in origins numbers and genomic location among developmental states with a generally higher origin variability in pluripotent cells. Using ratiometric analysis of incorporated nucleotides normalized per replisome in single cells, we uncovered differences in fork speed throughout the S phase in pluripotent cells but not in somatic cells. Altogether, our data define similarities and differences on the replication program and characteristics in human cells at different developmental states.

Maintain your mind, maintain your focus: Effects of focused attention and intensity in experienced runners

The intensity that people choose for their endurance activities has a major influence on their affective experience. Furthermore, the direction of attention (e.g., internal or external) during endurance activities may significantly influence performance and personal perceptions. Therefore, in the current study, we focus on the interaction between intensity and attentional focus. We aim to address the question of whether adopting an internal (IAF; breathing) or an external attentional focus (EAF; environment), compared to a control condition, leads in differences in speed, heart rate, and affect during running at different intensities in experienced runners. Data from 59 participants were analyzed (Mage: 26.95 (SD = 4.78) years; 34 male; 25 female). Participants ran 9 × 3 min in an outdoor park with three intensity conditions (light, somewhat hard, hard) and three attention conditions (internal, external, control). Intensity, but not attentional focus, impacted affective responses. Results revealed a significant interaction between attentional focus and intensity on heart rate (p < 0.001, ω2p = 0.199): during the somewhat hard intensity, the control focus condition was significantly lower compared the internal and external attentional focus conditions. Additionally, we used exploratory multilevel models (MLM). In the best-fitting MLM of heart rate, 45% of the variance is attributed to differences between athletes, and thus 55% of the variance within athletes. Furthermore, the model indicated that athletes running at a somewhat hard intensity and maintaining an EAF (b = 7.69) or IAF (b = 6.36) had an increase in heart rate compared to the control condition. We speculate that simultaneously monitoring effort and following an attentional instruction was such a difficult task that led to a favorable effect for the control condition. In practice, this could mean that the implementation of an unfamiliar focus of attention, for example, initially requires additional energy expenditure.

Influence of Blind Spot Assistance Systems in Heavy Commercial Vehicles on Accident Reconstruction.

Accidents between right-turning commercial vehicles and crossing vulnerable road users (VRUs) in urban environments often lead to serious or fatal injuries and therefore play a significant role in forensic accident analysis. To reduce the risk of accidents, blind spot assistance systems have been installed in commercial vehicles for several years, among other things, to detect VRUs and warn the driver in time. However, since such systems cannot reliably prevent all turning accidents, an investigation by experts must clarify how the accident occurred and to what extent the blind spot assistance system influenced the course of the accident. The occurrence of the acoustic warning message can be defined as an objective reaction prompt for the driver, so that the blind spot assistance system can significantly influence the avoidability assessment. In order to be able to integrate the system into forensic accident analysis, a precise knowledge of how the system works and its limitations is required. For this purpose, tests with different systems and accident constellations were conducted and evaluated. It was found that the type of sensor used for the assistance systems has a great influence on the system's performance. The lateral distance between the right side of the commercial vehicle and the VRU, as well as obstacles between them, along with the speed difference can have great influence on the reliability of the assistance system. Depending on the concrete time of the system's warning signal, the accident can be avoided or not by the driver when reacting to this signal.

Research on Precise Tracking Control of Gear-Shifting Actuator for Non-Synchronizer Automatic Mechanical Transmission Based on Sleeve Trajectory Planning

The Non-Synchronizer Automated Mechanical Transmission (NSAMT) demonstrates a straightforward structure and cost-effectiveness; however, the primary obstacle to its widespread application lies in NSAMT shift control. The implementation of active angle alignment effectively addresses the issue of shifting quality, but achieving active angle alignment necessitates precise tracking of the planned shifting curve by the gear-shifting actuator. To tackle the control problem of accurate tracking for NSAMT shift actuators, this paper initially analyzes the structure and shift characteristics of the NSAMT. Based on this analysis, a physical model is established using Amesim, incorporating a drive motor, two-gear NSAMT, shift actuator, sleeve, and DC motor model. An extended state observer (ESO) is designed to mitigate unknown interference within the system. Furthermore, an active angle alignment control algorithm based on “zero speed difference” and “zero angle difference” for double target tracking is constructed while planning the axial motion trajectory of the sleeve. The Backstepping algorithm is employed to successfully track and regulate this planned trajectory. Finally, through Hardware-in-the-Loop testing, we validate our proposed control strategy, which demonstrates consistent results with simulation outcomes, thereby affirming its effectiveness.

Icy ocean worlds, plumes, and tasting the water

AbstractThis paper considers how space missions that fly through the plumes known, or suspected, to erupt naturally from some icy ocean worlds (IOW), such as Enceladus, or that aim to intercept icy ejecta from impact cratering processes on such bodies can sample the water and ice within the plumes. The mechanics of how grains (either in the plumes or the ejecta) would interact with a passing spacecraft (i.e., impact speeds, shock pressures, etc.) are introduced. The impact speeds are estimated and vary with both the mass of the IOW and the orbital parameters of a space mission. This can lead to large differences in impact speeds (and hence collection methods) at bodies such as Enceladus and Europa. The implications of these different impact speeds (a few hundred m s−1 to several km s−1, and even greater than 10 km s−1) for the collection of organic materials from the plumes are shown to be significant.

The Impact of Postures and Moving Directions in Fire Evacuation in a Low-Visibility Environment.

Walking speed is a significant aspect of evacuation efficiency, and this speed varies during fire emergencies due to individual physical abilities. However, in evacuations, it is not always possible to keep an upright posture, hence atypical postures, such as stoop walking or crawling, may be required for survival. In this study, a novel 3D passive vision-aided inertial system (3D PVINS) for indoor positioning was used to track the movement of 20 volunteers during an evacuation in a low visibility environment. Participants' walking speeds using trunk flexion, trunk-knee flexion, and upright postures were measured. The investigations were carried out under emergency and non-emergency scenarios in vertical and horizontal directions, respectively. Results show that different moving directions led to a roughly 43.90% speed reduction, while posture accounted for over 17%. Gender, one of the key categories in evacuation models, accounted for less than 10% of the differences in speed. The speeds of participants under emergency scenarios when compared to non-emergency scenarios was also found to increase by 53.92-60% when moving in the horizontal direction, and by about 48.28-50% when moving in the vertical direction and descending downstairs. Our results also support the social force theory of the warming-up period, as well as the effect of panic on the facilitating occupants' moving speed.

Capturing individual differences in sentence processing: How reliable is the self-paced reading task?

Advances in research on language processing have originally come from group-level comparisons, but there is now a growing interest in individual differences. To investigate individual differences, tasks that have shown robust group-level differences are often used with the implicit assumption that they will also be reliable when used as an individual differences measure. Here, we examined whether one of the primary tasks used in psycholinguistic research on language processing, the self-paced reading task, can reliably measure individual differences in relative clause processing. We replicated the well-established effects of relative clauses at the group level, with object relative clauses being more difficult to process than subject relative clauses. However, when using difference scores, the reliability of the size of the relative clause effect was close to zero because the self-paced reading times for the different relative clause types were highly correlated within individuals. Nonetheless, we found that the self-paced reading task can be used to reliably capture individual differences in overall reading speed as well as key sentence regions when the two types of relative clause sentences are considered separately. Our results indicate that both the reliability and validity of different sentence regions need to be assessed to determine whether and when self-paced reading can be used to examine individual differences in language processing.