Department Of Puno Research Articles

Social marketing of the coffee cream liquor in the Association of Agroindustrial Entrepreneurs of Challohuma of San Juan del Oro

The purpose of the study is to explain the factors that determine social marketing of coffee cream liquor in the Association of Agroindustrial Entrepreneurs of Challohuma in San Juan del Oro District, Department of Puno (Southern Peru). The methodological design specifies a type of quantitative approach, with a non-experimental, cross-sectional design, through surveys in a total of 41 members of the association. Results demonstrated that the factors that significantly determine social marketing of coffee cream liqueur are marketing factors on individual consumers (product attributes, brand assignment, packaging, labeling and product support services), society (commitment to health, environment and collaborators), and about the company (internal quality of service, satisfied and productive service employees, greater service value, satisfied and loyal customers and healthy profits and growth). The Pearson coefficient r = 0.746 explains at the significance level of α = 0.01 that social marketing factors of coffee cream liquor of the Association of Agroindustrial Entrepreneurs of Challohuma in San Juan del Oro, are positively and considerably correlated with the factor of individual, social and business consumer, supporting the alternative hypothesis. It is concluded that social marketing plans must be implemented to boost the growth of the company.

Structural, Thermal, Rheological, and Morphological Characterization of the Starches of Sweet and Bitter Native Potatoes Grown in the Andean Region.

This study aimed to extract and characterize the morphological, physicochemical, thermal, and rheological properties of the starches of native potatoes grown in the department of Puno. Among the varieties evaluated were sweet native potato varieties Imilla Negra (Solanum tuberosum spp. Andígena), Imilla Blanca (Solanum tuberosum spp. Andígena), Peruanita, Albina or Lomo (Solanum chaucha), and Sutamari, and the bitter potatoes Rucki or Luki (Solanum juzepczukii Buk), Locka (Solanum curtilobum), Piñaza (Solanum curtilobum), and Ocucuri (Sola-num curtilobum), acquired from the National Institute of Agrarian Innovation (INIA-Puno). The proximal composition, amylose content, and morphological, thermal, and rheological properties that SEM, DSC, and a rheometer determined, respectively, were evaluated, and the data obtained were statistically analyzed using a completely randomized design and then a comparison of means using Tukey's LSD test. The results show a significant difference in the proximal composition (p ≤ 0.05) concerning moisture content, proteins, fat, ash, and carbohydrates. Thus, the amylose content was also determined, ranging from 23.60 ± 0.10 to 30.33 ± 0.15%. The size morphology of the granules is 13.09-47.73 µm; for the thermal and rheological properties of the different varieties of potato starch, it is shown that the gelatinization temperature is in a range of 57 to 62 °C and, for enthalpy, between 3 and 5 J/g.

Parameters of pubertal growth spurt in children and adolescents living at high altitude in Peru

ObjectivesThe aim was to estimate the pubertal growth height of children and adolescents living in a high-altitude region of Peru using the Preece-Baines model 1 (1 PB). MethodsA cross-sectional study was conducted in schoolchildren from the department of Puno (Peru) between 3841 and 3874 masl. The age range was between 4 and 17 years. Standing height was evaluated. 1 PB was used to infer the mathematical and biological parameters of stature. ResultsMathematical parameters estimated by the 1 PB model reflected small residual standard error (RSE) values in both sexes (0.25 in boys and 0.27 in girls). In boys, the age at which peak velocity was reached (APHV) was estimated at 13.21 ± 0.33years. While in girls it was 9.96 ± 0.26years (p < 0.05). In general, girls reached APHV (y) 3.25 years earlier than boys. On the other hand, the growth velocity of maximum height [APHV (cm/y)] of boys was higher (6.33 ± 6.06 cm/y) relative to girls (6.06 ± 0.32 cm/y). Estimated final adult height (EFAH) in boys was reached at 166.020 ± 0.99 cm and height at maximum growth velocity (HPHV) was 153.07 ± 0.67 cm, while in girls they were significantly lower (EFAH; 153.74 ± 0.44 cm and HPHV: 139.73 ± 0.84 cm). ConclusionsThis study showed that girls living in Puno at a high altitude in Peru reached APHV 3 years earlier than boys and at the same time reflected slower PHV. These results suggest that pubertal growth at high altitudes is slower in both sexes and especially in girls. Thus, modeling physical growth may be an important step in understanding the onset of puberty at different latitudes.

Sulfosalicylic acid to detect proteins in urine of pregnant women

Preeclampsia is one of the main causes of maternal mortality in the Department of Puno, this complication is a hypertensive disease of pregnancy, it is a public health problem worldwide, for this reason it is necessary to make a timely and preventive diagnosis.An alternative, for the confirmation of this disease, is the rapid detection of proteinuria, using sulfosalicylic acid, which, due to its predictive value, can be used in establishments that do not have personnel or laboratories to carry out clinical examinations.•It is an easy-to-use reagent that uses the urine of the pregnant woman.•Support for the diagnosis of preeclampsia in pregnancy•In addition, it is used to detect proteinuria in systemic diseases.

Anxiety and depression as predictors of life satisfaction during pre-professional health internships in COVID-19 times: the mediating role of psychological well-being

Due to the emotional impact of COVID-19 on university students, the goal was to explore the relationship between anxiety, depression, psychological well-being, and life satisfaction among pre-professional interns. The research was carried out using an explanatory cross-sectional design, with the participation of 1011 pre-professional interns of 13 health networks from the department of Puno (Peru). Data were collected using the Satisfaction with Life Scale, Generalized Anxiety Disorder Scale-2, Patient Health Questionnaire 2, and the Psychological Wellbeing Scale. The main data analysis was carried out using the R statistical software, and implementing the confirmatory factor analysis technique, which evidenced that the explanatory model provides an acceptable value. Based on the above, a negative relationship between depression and life satisfaction, (β = −.60, p < .001) and a positive relationship between anxiety and life satisfaction (β = .28, p < .001) was shown, in addition to a mediating effect of the psychological wellbeing related to depression and life satisfaction (p < .001). In conclusion, life satisfaction is explained concerning the degree of depression and anxiety, as well as the moderating effect of psychological well-being. Despite that, there is an urgent need to take preventive actions to strengthen the mental health of the pre-professional health interns, who have also been providing support during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Distribuição Espacial das Secas na Bacia do Lago Titicaca

Abstract The present research has assessed the spatial distribution of drought risk in the Titicaca Lake Basin located in Peruvian territory for a district scale, based on hazard and vulnerability. Drought hazard has been quantified with the deficit of precipitation using the Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI) for a time scale of 3-months, and the vulnerability has been obtained according to the socio-economic and physical indicators of the Basin. The results show that the drought is strongly modulated by anomalous SST conditions of the surrounding Oceans, mainly by the Pacific region. Over the Titicaca Lake Basin was identified that about 50% of districts present a high to very high risk of drought mainly, in the northwestern, central-east, and central-south of the Basin. These districts have a larger deficit of precipitation and showed indicators that are more vulnerable to the drought hazard due to that economically depends on precarious rainfed agriculture and an extensive and mixed livestock system. Within this area are the most important provinces of the high-Andean region, such as Puno, San Roman, Azángaro, Melgar, and Carabaya, and outstanding districts as Puno and Juliaca, considered the economic capital of the department of Puno.

Parámetros productivos del ovino criollo

The objective of this study was to determine the productive parameters of the Criollo sheep, for the period 1993-2006, the study was carried out at the Chuquibambilla Research and Production Center, department of Puno. The productive parameters were determined using conventional formulas. The annual average capital (CPA) of the period was 1757; The class structure was: rams 8.62%, male yearling lambs 15.38%, male lambs 6.25%, ewes 47.10%, female yearling lambs 16.16% and female lambs 6.50%; the crude birth rate and real birth rate were 74.89% and 34.98% respectively; the sex ratio at birth was 0.97 males: 1.04 females (p≥0.05) and at weaning it was 0.96 males: 1.04 females (p≥0.05); the mortality rate with respect to the CPA was 3.85%; the result with respect to the CPA was 31.30%; the lambs achieved with respect to the CPA was 33.65% and with respect to the same class it was 96.02%; the gross and real growth rate were 1.04% and 0.59% respectively; and the livestock efficiency was 31.89%. In conclusion, the productive parameters of the Criollo sheep under environmental conditions of the high Peruvian Andes were efficient.

Work-Related Factors Associated With Burnout Among Peruvian Nurses.

Introduction:Commonly, burnout in nurses has influenced their performance. The contribution of this study allows to broaden the knowledge of the performance-burnout relationship and identifies the work performance in nurses as a precursor of burnout.Objective:The study aimed to examine the factors of work performance of nursing staff that influence burnout.Methods:A descriptive cross-sectional design was used and a total of 340 nurses from the department of Puno in Peru participated. Demographic, job performance, and burnout data were collected.Results:Job performance factors, such as counterproductive behavior, positively influenced burnout, while task and context performance negatively influenced burnout. These variables explained 28.54% of the variance of burnout among nurses.Conclusion:Job performance factors have a significant impact on burnout. To reduce burnout, workforce resources that motivate, engage, and monitor nurse performance must be identified individually or organizationally. There is a need to develop training that promotes the improvement of emotional skills for better performance and the reduction of professional burnout.

Parámetros productivos en camélidos sudamericanos

The objective of this study wasto determine the productive parameters in South American camelids. The study was carried out in the Quimsachata camelid germplasm bank, located in the department of Puno, Peru. The monthly alpacas and llamas counting sheets for the 2014-2018 period were used. The total annual average capital (CPA) was 1483 alpacas and 1213 llamas; the largest productive class structure is made up of mothers with 54.35% in alpacas and 54.33% in llamas. The gross and real birth rates for alpacas were 38.93%and 20.82% respectively, while the gross and real birth rates for llamas were 41.20%and 22.31% respectively. Mortality with respect to CPA was 6.83% in alpacas and 4.77% in llamas. The output in relation to the CPA was 21.76%in alpacas and 18.66% in llamas. The percentage of offspring achieved within the same class was 91.75% in alpacas and 92.92% in llamas. Livestock efficiency has been positive in both populations. It is concluded that the productive parameters of the South American camelids of the Quimsachata germplasmbank are within the parameters of the department of Puno.

Echinococcus granulosus sensu stricto and E. canadensis are distributed in livestock of highly endemic area in the Peruvian highlands

The prevalence of cystic echinococcosis is high in many livestock areas of Peru, where intermediate hosts such as sheep, cattle, and South American camelids can be infected. Several species of E. granulosus have been described in relation to its genetic diversity and distribution. The aim of this study was to determine the species of E. granulosus sensu lato (s.l.) metacestodes collected from sheep, cattle, swine and camelids at different localities in the department of Puno, in the southern highlands of Peru. One hundred and fifty-two echinococcal cysts were collected from 10 different locations. E. granulosus s.l. species were determined by amplification of the Internal transcribed spacer 1 of the ribosomal DNA using a Nested PCR-RFLP technique. The cytochrome C oxidase 1 gene (450 bp) was also amplified and sequenced in samples with different RFLP patterns. Cysts samples were collected from sheep (39.5%), cattle (32.9%), pigs (15.8%) and alpacas/llamas (11.8%). E. granulosus sensu stricto (G1 genotype) was mainly identified in all animal hosts, while, the E. canadensis (G7) was only identified in cysts from pigs and alpacas. This is the first report of E. granulosus sensu stricto and E. canadensis in llamas and alpacas, respectively. Knowledge of species and molecular epidemiology of E. granulosus s.l. in endemic areas in Peru may help to evaluate preventive programs, understand disease transmission, as well as improve vaccine and chemotherapy effectiveness.

Pristimantis achupalla sp. n., a new minute species of direct-developing frog (Amphibia, Anura, Strabomantidae) inhabiting bromeliads of the montane forest of the Amazonian Andes of Puno, Peru.

We describe a new species of bromeliad-dwelling Pristimantis from primary montane forest (2,225 m a.s.l.) in southern Peru. The type locality is near Thiuni, in the Department of Puno (province of Carabaya) in the upper watershed of a tributary of the Inambari River. Pristimantis achupalla sp. n. is characterized by a snout-vent length of 10.0–12.8 mm in adult males (n = 4), unknown in adult females, and is compared morphologically and genetically with species in the Pristimantis lacrimosus group, and with other similar species of Pristimantis. The new species is characterized by having skin on dorsum and flanks rugose, green brownish color, distinctive scapular folds, subacuminate or acuminate snout profile, upper eyelid bearing two or three subconical tubercles and some rounded tubercles, rostral papilla, flanks light brown to brown, with irregular dark brown marks.

Pharmaceuticals and environmental risk assessment in municipal wastewater treatment plants and rivers from Peru

This is the first study dealing with removal of the pharmaceutical substances in municipal wastewater treatment plants (MWWTPs) from Peru and the impact of these compounds in surface waters receiving treated wastewater. To this aim, samples from MWWTP of Lima (Peruvian Coast), MWWTP of Cusco, Puno and Juliaca (Peruvian Highlands), as well surface water (confluence of Torococha and Coata rivers in Juliaca) were analyzed. A total of 38 target pharmaceuticals were included in this study and were determined by Liquid Chromatography coupled to tandem Mass Spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Around 60% and 75% of the target pharmaceuticals could be quantified in surface water and MWWTPs, respectively. Acetaminophen was the drug found at the highest concentration, and it was present in all the treated wastewater samples reaching average values above 100 μg/L in the department of Puno. The gabapentin anti-epileptic drug (up to 11.85 μg/L in MWWTP Lima) and the antibiotics clarithromycin, trimethoprim, ciprofloxacin, sulfamethoxazole and azithromycin (1.86 to 4.47 μg/L in MWWTP Lima) were also found at moderate concentrations in the treated wastewater. In surface water, the highest concentration corresponded also to acetaminophen (28.70 μg/L) followed by sulfamethoxazole (4.36 μg/L). As regards the pharmaceuticals removal, data of this work showed that the MWWTP Cusco (aerobic biologic process by synthetic trickling filters as secondary treatment) was more efficient than the MWWTP Lima (a preliminary treatment that combines grilles, sand trap, degreaser-aerated and sieved of 1.0 mm). However, many pharmaceuticals (around 50% of the compounds investigated) presented concentrations in treated wastewater similar or even higher than in influent wastewater. The environmental ecological risk of pharmaceuticals was assessed based on calculated Risk Quotient (RQ) in the treated wastewater and surface water from the concentration data found in the samples. According to our data, three antibiotics (clarithromycin, ciprofloxacin, clindamycin) and the analgesic acetaminophen posed high environmental risk (RQ ≥ 1) on the aquatic environment. In the river, all antibiotics (except norfloxacin) as well as the analgesic-anti-inflammatory compounds acetaminophen, diclofenac posed a high environmental risk (RQ ≥ 1). Based on data reported in this work for the first time in water samples from Peru, it can be deduced that the treatment processes applied in important cities from Peru are not enough efficient to remove pharmaceuticals in wastewater. As a consequence, severe environmental risks associated to the presence of pharmaceuticals in treated wastewater and surface water are expected; so complementary treatment processes should be implemented in the MWWTPs for a more efficient elimination of these compounds.

Ichthyophonosis in Peruvian rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss: identification of endemic areas using molecular and histopathological tools.

Ichthyophonus infection was first detected in Peruvian Oncorhynchus mykiss in 1986, but the occurrence of ichthyophonosis disease in the region is unknown. This study investigated the presence and distribution of Ichthyophonus sp. in Peruvian rainbow trout using traditional and DNA sequencing tools. Between 2007 and 2008, 205 rainbow trout from 13 hatcheries in the Mantaro river basin were examined for the presence of Ichthyophonus, and at that time only 3 farms were positive. This early study confirmed the presence of Ichthyophonus sp. in the Tranca Grande lagoon for the first time, at a prevalence of 50%. In 2012, examination of 240 trout from 24 fish farms in 2 Peruvian Departments found 9 infected farms. More recently, in 2018, Ichthyophonus sp. was found in Lake Titicaca, infecting a trout in the Ichu area (in the Department of Puno). Our molecular analysis of the infected trout showed that ichthyophonosis disease in the Peruvian trout was caused by Ichthyophonus sp. Clade C. The finding of this pathogen in Lake Titicaca should be an alert for nearby farms and entities dealing with fish of economic importance in the rivers of Peru.

Estimación de efluentes líquidos producidos en el procesamiento de queso en la región Puno 2018

Los efluentes líquidos producidos en el procesamiento de queso en la región Puno son vertidos al medio ambiente sin ningún tipo de tratamiento produciendo un impacto negativo sobre el medio ambiente. El objetivo del estudio fue determinar la cantidad de efluentes vertidos al medio ambiente durante el procesamiento de queso en la región Puno. La metodología utilizada es el análisis de resultados de estudios realizados por la Universidad Nacional del Altiplano y la Universidad Peruana Unión para la caracterización de los efluentes producidos en el procesamiento de queso. La determinación de la cantidad de efluentes líquidos vertidos se analizó los estudios realizados por el Ministerio de Agricultura y Riego, el Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática y el Gobierno Regional de Puno, se determinó que en la región Puno la industria quesera vertió 15192.54 toneladas de efluentes líquidos durante el año 2018 con un alto contenido de Demanda Química de Oxigeno (DQO) estando este parámetro fuera de los límites máximos permitidos por la legislación ambiental peruana.

Gestión educativa como factor determinante del desempeño de docentes de educación básica regular durante la pandemia Covid-19, Puno-Perú

La presente investigación tuvo como objetivo analizar el efecto de la gestión educativa sobre el desempeño docente en profesores de Educación Básica Regular del departamento de Puno, durante la Pandemia COVID-19. Corresponde a una investigación de enfoque cuantitativo, alcance explicativo y diseño no experimental, que contó con la participación de 650 docentes de 10 Unidades de Gestión Educativa Local, a quienes se les aplicó una escala de percepción de la gestión educativa y un cuestionario de autoevaluación del desempeño docente, ambos válidos y confiables; los análisis se realizaron en base a un nivel de significancia del 5% y nivel de confianza del 95%. Los resultados dan cuenta de una correlación directa y significativa entre la variable gestión educativa y desempeño docente (r = .623, p &lt; .05), de igual forma con las dimensiones gestión institucional (r =.523, p &lt; .05), Gestión pedagógica (r =.499, p &lt; 0.05), Gestión administrativa (r =.611, p &lt; .05) y Gestión comunitaria (r = .514, p &lt; .05). Aunado a esto, el modelo de regresión lineal múltiple explica el efecto que tiene la variable gestión educativa y sus dimensiones, sobre el desempeño docente en los profesores de Puno. Se concluye que la gestión educativa, que puede ser entendida como el fortalecimiento de los Proyectos Educativos y el enriquecimiento de los procesos pedagógicos con el fin de responder a las necesidades educativas locales y regionales, es un factor determinante que explica el nivel de desempeño que logran los profesores de Educación Básica Regular de Puno durante la Pandemia COVID-19.

Fibrosarcoma en ovinos de la zona altiplánica del Perú: reporte de casos

Neoplastic diseases affect notoriously the health of the sheep and therefore, the profitability of the breeding ofthis species. In order to perform a macro and microscopic study of two cases of abdominal cancer, a sheep wastaken (case 1) from the district of Umachiri, province of Melgar, north zone of the department of Puno, andanother sheep (case 2) from the district of Laraqueri, province of Puno, southwest area of the same department;both zones belong to the Peruvian sector of the Collao plateau high lands. The two specimens were sufferingfrom chronic weakening disease without response to any therapeutic scheme. The two ewes were received aspathological cases to be studied in the Course of General Veterinary Pathology of the Faculty of VeterinaryMedicine and Zootechnics (FMVZ) of the National University of Altiplano in Puno city (UNAP). Both animalswere sacrificed by euthanasia using sodium pentobarbital. Necropsy was performed in both cases in the FMVZ'sLaboratory of Macroscopic Pathology of UNAP, tumor tissue samples were taken for the microscopic study; Thesamples were processed in the Histopathology Laboratory of the aforementioned faculty. The results were asfollows: macroscopically, in the abdominal cavity of case 1, numerous whitish nodules were observed, withirregular edges, firm to the touch invading adjacent tissues including numerous mesenteric lymph nodes; in the mesentery of case 2, a single whitish nodule of firm consistency was observed, with very irregular borders and quite invasive to adjacent intestinal loops; microscopically, in both cases, anaplastic fibrous tissue was observed, conformed by pleomorphic fibroblasts, some multinucleated and atypical; in case 1, in addition, numerous necrotic tumor tissue in process of calcification foci were found. These macroscopic findings of nodular-pale lesions, irregularly shaped, firm to the touch, and resistant to cut; that when examined microscopically, poorly differentiated fibrous tissue was observed, in these two cases studied, allow us to conclude that they correspond to fibrosarcoma and the case 1 was a terminal one.

Scientific publications and characteristics of health theses from universities of the department of Puno, Peru

In order to determine the frequency of publication of undergraduate thesis in health and identify its characteristics, an observational cross-sectional study was carried out, where the population was made up of 482 theses approved between 2016 - 2018 corresponding to the medical career (25.1 %), nursing (46.5%), nutrition (18.5%) and psychology (10%) of 4 universities in the department of Puno. The results indicate a greater proportion of descriptive works (56.8%), of non-experimental design (90.5%), involving hospital population (36.1%), using a sample of between 51 and 200 participants (58.7 %); In addition, only 5 theses (1%) were published in an indexed scientific journal. It is concluded that the degree projects in health of universities of Puno, are characterized by resorting to non-experimental designs with a descriptive scope; evidencing a very low and worrying publication frequency.

BÚSQUEDA DE BIOMARCADORES PARA LA DISCRIMINACIÓN DE LAS VARIEDADES DE KAÑIWA (Chenopodium pallidicaule Aellen) “CHILLIWA” Y “RAMIS” POR MEDIO DE METABOLÓMICA NON-TARGETED

La “kañiwa” (Chenopodium pallidicaule Aellen) es un grano andino muy nutritivo caracterizado por su alto contenido de proteínas y buen perfil de aminoácidos. La diversidad de esta especie viene siendo caracterizada por estudios agro-morfológicos y genómicos, los cuales no son completamente eficientes para discriminar entre las accesiones y variedades. Actualmente se utiliza la metabolómica como una herramienta adicional para la delimitación de especies. En tal sentido, en el presente trabajo se llevó a cabo el análisis metabolómico “non-targeted” de dos variedades de kañiwa (“Ramis” y “Chilliwa”) provenientes del departamento de Puno, Perú. Para el análisis se utilizó la cromatografía líquida de ultra-alta performance acoplada a la espectrometría de masas de alta resolución con analizador Orbitrap (UHPLC-HRMS). Para la identificación de los metabolitos se utilizaron los softwares MSDIAL y MSFINDER. Los perfiles químicos obtenidos fueron resumidos en una sola tabla para su análisis estadístico con el software SIMCA P. El modelo estadístico OPLS-DA permitió la clasificación de ambas variedades de kañiwa y el gráfico S-plot puso en evidencia los principales biomarcadores putativos para la discriminación de ambas variedades. El metabolito delfinidina-O-(6''-O-α-ramnopiranosil-β-glucopiranósido) fue identificado como uno de los principales biomarcadores para la kañiwa “Ramis”.

Academic self-concept and academic motivation in young talent from the department of Puno

El objetivo del estudio fue determinar la relación entre las variables autoconcepto académico y motivación académica en jóvenes talento de Puno-Perú. La metodología corresponde al estudio de tipo correlacional, de diseño no experimental y corte transversal; se trabajó con una población de 80 universitarios beneficiarios del programa beca 18 de una universidad privada de Puno, siendo el 48.8 % de sexo masculino y el 51.3 % de sexo femenino, a quienes fue aplicado dos instrumentos de medición documental: la sub escala de autoconcepto académico AF5 y una escala de motivación académica, ambos válidos y confiables. Los datos fueron procesados con el paquete estadístico SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sciencies) versión 22.0 a un nivel de significancia del 5% y nivel de confianza del 95%. Los resultados según el coeficiente de correlación Rho de Spearman evidenciaron la existencia de una correlación moderada, directa y significativa entre las variables de investigación (Rho = .497; p = .000) así como en las dimensiones motivación intrínseca (Rho = .475, p = .000) y motivación extrínseca (Rho = .485, p = .000), en cambio en Amotivación se halló una correlación inversa baja y no significativa (Rho = -.196, p = .082). Se concluye que, a mayor autoconcepto académico, mayor será la motivación académica.

The urban and the rural in Puno, highland Peru

This article describes and analyzes important aspects of the relationship between the urban and the rural in the south of the Peruvian department of Puno. The author argues that the assumed arbitrariness of the border between the countryside and the city, between the urban and the rural, is extremely widespread and that Andean peasant communities are undergoing more and more integrating processes at different levels which, rather than determining the disintegration of these communities, are resulting in their redefinition. Kinship networks create flows that include people within much broader contexts than in the past, and both cities and peasant communities can be seen to exist within forms of modernity that do not necessarily correspond to Euro‐American patterns.