Demineralization Rate Research Articles

Optimization of Electrodialysis for Ammonium Removal From NH4Cl-Doped Groundwater Samples Using the Response Surface Method.

This study aims to optimize ammonium removal from NH4Cl-enriched groundwater at different concentrations using an electrodialysis (ED) process. A customized design (CD) based on response surface methodology (RSM) was employed to develop predictive models and improve the performance of the demineralization system. Ion removal efficiency was evaluated in 32 unique experimental configurations, taking into account variations in three input parameters: voltage (A), initial ammonium concentration (B) and demineralization rate (C). These parameters were selected for their impact on two response variables: electric conductivity (Y1) and final ammonium concentration (Y2). An in-depth analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed to examine the variables and their interactions. The results indicated that Y1 was significantly influenced by C, while Y2 was influenced by B. In addition, the predictive models demonstrated strong correlations, with a coefficient of determination (R2) greater than 0.88 for both response variables. The RSM approach applied to optimize the parameters studied identified the following optimum values: 14.17 V for A, 1 mg/L for B and 70 % for C, giving Y1 of 215.377 μS/cm and Y2 of 0.279 mg/L.

Evaluation Study of Ammonium Removal from Groundwater by Electrodialysis: Case Study of Real Groundwater from the City of Kenitra in Morocco.

In this work, we investigated the feasibility of ammonium removal by electrodialysis (ED), a well-known electro-membrane process, based on the selective migration of anions and cations through anion exchange membranes (AEMs) and cation exchange membranes (CEMs). ED experiments are performed using a laboratory pilot. The ion exchange membranes (IEMs) pair used is AXE/CMX, AXE as an AEMs and CMX as a CEMs. The first tests are performed with real groundwater solutions from Kenitra city (Morocco), spiked with an initial concentration of 3 mg/L NH4Cl. The results gave a specific demineralization (SD) to NH4 + ions of 84.60 %; for a demineralization rate (DR) of 80 % and a time of 60 min. The multivariate principal component analysis (PCA) presents a total inertia of 99.23 %, the majority of the variables of which are positively correlated on the C1 axis with a variance of 95.5 % than that of C2 of 3.78 %. The quality of the diluted water determined by the Legrand-Poirier method showed that the water was aggressive and that the addition of 4.54 mg/L Ca2+ was necessary to balance the water and make it fit for human consumption.

Performance of three anion-exchange membranes in fluoride ions removal by electrodialysis.

The performance of three anion-exchange membranes (AEMs) in the fluoride ions reduction by electrodialysis (ED) is performed on real and synthetic water. The electric potential method measures the potential difference (PD) between two synthetic anion solutions separated by ACS, AFN and AXE membranes. The selectivity of these three AEMs coupled with the membrane CMX, is a cation-exchange membrane (CEM) towards different ions. The removal rate is influenced by the thickness of the polarization layer (PL) which reduces the material transfer and provides an additional barrier. The greater the thickness δ of the PL, the longer the passage time and consequently the removal rate of anions is small. Using the unstirred layer model, δ for each ion will be determined. According to the potential measurement method, none of the tested AEMs are selective to fluoride ions and the order of selectivity is as follows: AFN> AXE> ACS. Best membrane couple selected for fluoride ion removal is ACS/CMX and ion selectivity follows the order: Cl-> NO-3>F-> HCO-3> SO42-. For ACS membrane, both the demineralization rate (DR) and δ of fluoride ions are influenced by the initial concentration of the co-ion according to the following order: NO-3> Cl-> HCO-3> SO2-4.

Dynamics of the demineralization of temporary teeth using ultrasonic shadow velosymmetry and autofluorescence microscopy <i>in vitro</i>

BACKGROUND: Given the high prevalence of caries in preschool children, additional methods for diagnosing hidden carious foci with deep structural demineralization of the hard tissues of temporary teeth without generating X-rays must be updated.
 AIM: To improve methods for studying the demineralization of hard tissues of primary teeth using ultrasonic shadow velosymmetry and autofluorescence microscopy.
 MATERIALS AND METHODS: The study included primary second molars (n=11). Samples of primary teeth were placed in a test tube with a demineralizing solution on days 1, 4, 8, 21, and 31. The samples were examined by autofluorescence microscopy and ultrasonic shadow velosymmetry according to the exposure time. The rate of acid demineralization of the primary teeth samples was assessed using our score scale. The averages were compared using the Wilcoxon W-test (p 0.05). Pearson correlation analysis was used, taking into account the statistical significance of the correlation coefficients for p 0.05.
 RESULTS: Analysis of samples of hard tissues of primary teeth by ultrasonic shadow velosymmetry showed that the velocity of the ultrasonic wave passage decreases with increasing exposure to the demineralizing solution and acquires a linear character with a negative regression coefficient. The decrease in the ultrasonic wave velocity in the enamel and dentin of the samples directly correlated with the degree of demineralization.
 CONCLUSION: The conducted experiment on the hard tissues of primary teeth showed that demineralization not only leads to micromorphological structural changes in the hard tissues of enamel and dentin but also affects the physical and acoustic properties of the samples.

One step purification of active nisin by electrodialysis from a commercial product

Nisin is a natural antimicrobial peptide widely used in food and medical applications. Its use is hampered by its costly production process and complex further purification. Therefore, electrodialysis process was used, for the first time, to purify a commercial nisin solution, in comparison with a conventional multiple-step centrifugation approach. Electrodialysis was, in one purification step, as efficient as the centrifugation process for nisin desalination (demineralization rate of 95.6% vs 94.3–99.8% respectively) with a higher protein recovery yield (83.8% vs 12.5–42.1% respectively). Centrifugation at higher concentration allowed the purification of nisin with the highest specific activity for supernatants S2 (3653.8–7307.6 AU/mg of proteins) and S3 (2394.2–9577.3 AU/mg of proteins). In a circular economy scheme, since saline effluents produced during centrifugation and precipitation processes represent an ecological and economical hurdle regarding their disposal, the use of electrodialysis would be of interest, by reusing the salts and lowering or eliminating the production of by-products.

Extraction of Chitin from Black Soldier Fly (Hermetia illucens) and Its Puparium by Using Biological Treatment.

Chitin is the second-largest natural polymer polysaccharide in nature. Due to its important physical and chemical properties and excellent biocompatibility, safety, and biodegradability, it is widely used in agriculture, medicine, food, environmental protection, and other fields. However, traditional extraction methods cause environmental pollution and damage the structure of chitin. Bioprocessing is an emerging technology that shows great potential. In this research, the puparia and adults of black soldier fly (BSF) (Hermetia illucens L.) were used as raw materials. A continuous fermentation method was designed to extract chitin, by using Bacillus subtilis S4 and Acetobacter pasteurianus AS1.41. The Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy identification results showed that the extracted sample was α-chitin. Under continuous fermentation conditions, the deproteinization (DP) rate, demineralization (DM) rate, chitin yield (CY), and deacetylation degree (DD) of puparium chitin were 33.33%, 94.92%, 59.90%, and 18.52%, respectively. Meanwhile, the DP rate, DM rate, CY, and DD of adult chitin were 46.63%, 90.93%, 47.31%, and 37.38%, respectively. For BSF, B. subtilis S4 had a certain DP ability, and A. pasteurianus AS1.41 had a good DM effect. Moreover, BSF at different developmental stages could affect CY, and a higher concentration of NaOH was more favorable for deacetylation. Overall, simultaneous continuous fermentation could be a new biological approach to extract chitin from BSF.

On the Use of Permselectivity to Describe the Selective Transfer of Organic Acids in Electrodialysis.

The increasing number of investigations on the use of electrodialysis (ED) in bio-refinery requires a better understanding and tools to evaluate and describe the transfer of charged organic solutes. This study focuses, as an example, on the selective transfer of acetate, butyrate, and chloride (used as a reference), characterized by using permselectivity. It is shown that permselectivity between two anions does not depend on the total ion concentration, neither on the ion proportions, current intensity, or time nor on the presence of an additional compound. Therefore, it is demonstrated that permselectivity can be used to model the evolution of the stream composition during ED, even at high demineralization rates. Indeed, a very good agreement is found between experimental and calculated values. This study and the application of permselectivity as a tool, as developed in this paper, could be highly valuable for a wide range of applications in electrodialysis.

Phenylalanine Losses in Neutralization Dialysis: Modeling and Experiment.

A non-steady state mathematical model of an amino acid (phenylalanine (Phe)) and mineral salt (NaCl) solution separation by neutralization dialysis (ND) carried out in a batch mode is proposed. The model takes into account the characteristics of membranes (thickness, ion-exchange capacity, and conductivity) and solutions (concentration, composition). As compared to previously developed models, the new one considers the local equilibrium of Phe protolysis reactions in solutions and membranes and the transport of all the phenylalanine forms (zwitterionic, positively and negatively charged) through membranes. A series of experiments on ND demineralization of the NaCl and Phe mixed solution was carried out. In order to minimize Phe losses, the solution pH in the desalination compartment was controlled by changing the concentrations of the solutions in the acid and alkali compartments of the ND cell. The validity of the model was verified by comparison of simulated and experimental time dependencies of solution electrical conductivity and pH, as well as the concentration of Na+, Cl- ions, and Phe species in the desalination compartment. Based on the simulation results, the role of Phe transport mechanisms in the losses of this amino acid during ND was discussed. In the experiments carried out, the demineralization rate reached 90%, accompanied by minimal Phe losses of about 16%. Modeling predicts a steep increase in Phe losses when the demineralization rate is higher than 95%. Nevertheless, simulations show that it is possible to achieve a highly demineralized solution (by 99.9%) with Phe losses amounting to 42%.

Effect of reverse osmosis pre-processing of acid whey and electrodialysis current density on process performance

Acid whey (AW) is the main side-stream from acidified dairy products, known for its high contents of lactic acid and minerals. The present work investigates the effect of reverse osmosis (RO) pre-processing of AW (ROAW) and the current density during electrodialysis (ED) on the ED process performance. Firstly, the limiting current density of the ED system when treating AW and ROAW was determined. Then, the AW and ROAW have been demineralized and deacidified at under-limiting or over-limiting current density batch operating conditions. RO pre-processing of AW and current density strongly affect the demineralization rate and solutes mass transport across the membranes. Lactate transport can be rationalized by the weak acid dissociation mechanism, while water splitting played a minor role in the ED process performance. Among cations, calcium and magnesium were most affected by RO pre-processing, due to their high affinity to the cation exchange membranes. Lactose and galactose were found in small amounts in the concentrate solution, while no glucose was detected for most conditions even though the glucose content decreased in the diluates. The energy consumption was up to 2 fold higher for ROAW compared to AW

Simultaneous Preparation of Chitin and Flavor Protein Hydrolysates from the By-Products of Shrimp Processing by One-Step Fermentation with Lactobacillus fermuntum.

One-step fermentation, inoculated with Lactobacillus fermentum (L. fermentum) in shrimp by-products, was carried out to obtain chitin and flavor protein hydrolysates at the same time. The fermentation conditions were optimized using response surface methodology, resulting in chitin with a demineralization rate of 89.48%, a deproteinization rate of 85.11%, and a chitin yield of 16.3%. The surface of chitin after fermentation was shown to be not dense, and there were a lot of pores. According to Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and X-ray diffraction patterns, the fermented chitin belonged to α-chitin. More than 60 volatiles were identified from the fermentation broth after chitin extraction using gas chromatography-ion transfer spectrometry analysis. L. fermentum fermentation decreased the intensities of volatile compounds related to unsaturated fatty acid oxidation or amino acid deamination. By contrast, much more pleasant flavors related to fruity and roasted aroma were all enhanced in the fermentation broth. Our results suggest an efficient one-step fermentation technique to recover chitin and to increase aroma and flavor constituents from shrimp by-products.

CORRELATION ASSESSMENT OF THE PARAMETERS OF DENTAL STATUS IN CHILDREN WHO PERMANENTLY LIVE IN DIFFERENT GEOGRAPHICAL ZONES OF THE TRANSCARPATHIAN REGION

The aim of the study. To evaluate the dental status of children with different degrees of caries activity who constantly live in conditions of biogeochemical deficiency of fluorine and iodine and to determine the correlation dependence of indicators. Materials and methods. An examination of 251 children aged 5 to 11 years (129 girls – 51.4% and 122 boys – 48.6%), residents of the mountain and lowland zones of Zakarpattia region, was conducted. The level of hygiene was assessed with the help of the Fedorov–Volodkina hygienic index, and the caries resistance of tooth enamel was determined using the DIAGNOdent pen (KaVo, Germany) and TEP-test (V.P. Okushko, L.I. Kosareva, 1983). Mathematical analysis and verification of the accuracy of the results and the calculation of possible error values were carried out using the Statistica software and Microsoft Office Excel 2007. The statistical analysis of the received data was carried out using the Statistica 6.0 standard statistical software. Results. In the studied regions, the decompensated degree of caries activity in children aged 5 to 11 years prevailed. In the group with a compensated degree of caries activity, the hygiene index was 2.2 ± 0.02 points and 2.0 ± 0.07 points (р < 0.05), with a subcompensated degree of caries activity – 2.7 ± 0.02 points, 2.6 ± 0.6 points; (р < 0.05), with decompensated degree of caries activity – 3.07 ± 0.02 points with temporary and 3.15 ± 0.6 points with variable bite. A significant decrease in caries resistance of enamel is observed among schoolers of Rakhiv school №1, in particular among children with a decompensated degree of caries activity, where this indicator is equal to 82.3%, which is significantly more than the result obtained among children in Uzhhorod school No. 20 (68.2% ). Conclusions. It was statistically established that the presence of a decompensated degree of caries activity had a direct correlation with high rates of tooth enamel demineralization in all studied patients of both educational institutions (r = 0.87, p = 0.05).

Enhancement of the production of bio-aromatics from bamboo pyrolysis: Wet torrefaction pretreatment coupled with catalytic fast pyrolysis

Light aromatics are important organic building blocks in the chemical industry which can be produced by catalytic fast pyrolysis (CFP) of biomass. In this work, wet torrefaction pretreatment (WTP) was employed to improve the quality of bamboo by synergistic effect of deoxygenation and demineralization. Then, CFP was employed to produce bio-aromatics by using zeolite (e.g. HZSM-5, HY, Al-MCM-41, and USY) as catalyst. Results showed that WTP temperature (180–260 °C) had more significant influence on the mass yields of torrefied products compared to WTP duration (30–150 min). The maximum deoxygenation rate was 49.36% at WTP conditions of 260 °C and 150 min, and the maximum demineralization rate followed the order of 96.29% (K) > 94.54% (Na) > 90.33% (Mg) > 89.22% (Ca). Among the five types of zeolite catalyst tested, HZSM-5 (25) was the best catalyst to obtain bio-aromatics due to its unique pore size and reasonable acidity. The maximum yield of aromatics (25.46 ×107 a.u./mg) was obtained at the WTP temperature of 220 °C, biomass-to-catalyst ratio of 3:1, and CFP temperature of 850 °C. Toluene was the more favored monocyclic aromatic hydrocarbon formed during CFP compared to xylene and benzene.

Recovery of Ca2+ and SO4 2- from Bittern Wastewater using Electrodialysis Method

The recovery of bittern is expected to obtain the added value products and minimize untreated wastewater disposal generated from the salt industry. Bittern is a waste stream resulted from the crystallization of the salt production process, consisting of a concentrated mineral in liquid form, known as the mother liquor of salt. The dominant minerals that can be recovered in bittern are calcium (Ca2+) and sulfate (SO4 2-), and salts such as calcium chloride, potassium sulfate, sodium chloride, and calcium sulfate, which are commonly found in bittern wastewater. In this study, mineral recovery of bittern was conducted by applying cylindrical membrane electrodialysis technology, due to the high demineralization rate and the applicability on fluctuating composition of the feed. This study determined differences in applied electrical current, temperature conditioning, recirculation flow rate, and specific energy requirements based on the optimum process. This research was conducted in the applied current of 5A, 7.5A, and 10A. Then, the temperature conditioning in the feed tank with a range of 25°C – 35°C, 36°C – 45°C, and without conditioning. The applied flow rate recirculation was 30 L/h and 36 L/h for 5 hours electrodialysis time. The highest removal efficiency was 31.57% and 35.03%. This result was achieved at 30 L/hour of flow rate recirculation, 10 A, and 40°C for Ca2+ and SO4 2-. Furthermore, the recovery efficiency of the ionic products was 30.17% and 27.62% for Ca2+ and SO4 2-, respectively.

Validation of Recycled Nanofiltration and Anion-Exchange Membranes for the Treatment of Urban Wastewater for Crop Irrigation.

One of the alternative sources to tackle the problem of water shortage is the use of reclaimed water from wastewater treatment plants for irrigation purposes. However, when the wastewater has a high conductivity value, it becomes unusable for crop irrigation and needs a more specific treatment. In this work, recycled nanofiltration (rNF) membranes and anion-exchange membranes (rAEMs) obtained from end-of-life RO membranes were validated to evaluate their application capability in saline wastewater treatment. The use of recycled membranes may represent an advantage due to their lower cost and reduced environmental impact associated with their production, which integrates membrane-based technology into a circular economy model. Both recycled membranes were tested in crossflow filtration and electrodialysis (ED) systems. The results of the rNF membrane showed a high selective rejection of divalent ions (SO42− (>96%) and Ca2+ and Mg2+ (>93%)). In the case of the ED process, the comparison between rAEMs and commercial membranes showed an appropriate demineralization rate without compromising the power consumption. Finally, the quality of both system effluents was suitable for irrigation, which was compared to the WHO guideline and validated by the 7-week lettuce crop study.

Electrodialysis Can Lower the Environmental Impact of Hemodialysis.

The hemodialysis technique, used worldwide for patients with chronic kidney disease, is considered as a treatment with a high economic and ecological impact, especially for water consumption. Getting ultrapure water for the preparation of the dialysate to clean patient’s blood from toxins leads to high volumes of salt-enriched water that directly goes to sewage. The aim of this work is to propose operating conditions for electrodialysis to allow the reuse of reverse osmosis (RO) rejects. We first performed a parametric study to evaluate the influence of different parameters, such as flow rates, initial concentration, and applied voltage on the demineralization rate (DR) and specific energy consumption (SPC) with a NaCl model solution. The optimal conditions for desalination (i.e., a potential of 12 V, and flow rate of 20 L·h−1) were then successfully applied to real samples collected from a dialysis center with total dissolved salts concentration of about 1.4 g/L (conductivity of 2.0 mS·cm−1). We demonstrated that the choice of adequate conductivity targets allowed meeting the physico-chemical requirements to obtain water re-usable for either rehabilitation swimming pool, manual or machine washing of instruments before sterilization or irrigation. Saving this water could contribute in the reduction of the environmental impact of hemodialysis.

Ionomer‐coated filtration membranes as an alternative to ion‐exchange membranes for demineralization by electrodialysis

AbstractIndustrial application of ion‐exchange membranes, the key component of many electro‐membrane processes, is often hindered due to their high cost—result of complex fabrication methods and use of highly engineered precursors. As an alternative to conventional anion‐exchange membrane (AMX), this study focuses on the fabrication of cation‐coated filtration membranes (CCFM‐Type 1 and CCFM‐Type 2) by depositing a thin layer of crosslinked branched polyethyleneimine (PEI)‐based ionomer on top of the porous substrate. The use of commodity precursors (PEI) in combination with energy efficient fabrication processes ensures a low end‐cost for CCFMs. The properties and the performances of these membranes are evaluated and compared with AMX. Though ionic conductance of both CCFMs is found to be lower than AMX, similar electrochemical behavior is observed for all three membranes. In terms of performance, the highest NaCl demineralization rate is given by CCFM‐Type 2, while whey demineralization rate for all three membranes is similar. Energy consumption during both processes is increased for CCFMs probably due to noticeably higher global resistance which the ED system reaches during the process. These promising results suggest the possible application of these cost‐effective CCFMs in electrodialysis demineralization processes as an alternative to commercial AMX at an industrial level.

Study of Polyvinyl Alcohol-SiO2 Nanoparticles Polymeric Membrane in Wastewater Treatment Containing Zinc Ions.

The main goal of the present paper was to synthesize the polyvinyl alcohol-SiO2 nanoparticles polymeric membrane by wet-phase inversion method. The efficiency of prepared membranes (without and with SiO2) was investigated using a versatile laboratory electrodialysis system filled with simulated wastewaters that contain zinc ions. All experiments were performed at following conditions: the applied voltage at electrodes of 5, 10 and 15 V, a concentration of zinc ions solution of 2 g L−1, time for each test of 1 h and at room temperature. The demineralization rate, extraction percentage of zinc ions, current efficiency and energy consumption were determined. The polymeric membranes were characterized by Fourier Transforms Infrared Spectroscopy-Attenuated Total Reflection (FTIR-ATR), Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS). The higher value of percentage removal of zinc ions (over 65%) was obtained for the polymeric membrane with SiO2 nanoparticles, at 15 V. The FTIR-ATR spectra show a characteristic peak located at ~1078 cm−1 assigned to the Si-O-Si asymmetrical stretching. SEM images of the polymeric membrane with SiO2 nanoparticles show that the nanoparticles and polymer matrix were well compatible. The impedance results indicated that the SiO2 nanoparticles induced the higher proton conductivity. The final polymeric membranes can be used for the removal of various metallic ions, dyes, organic or inorganic colloids, bacteria or other microorganisms from different natural waters and wastewaters.

Identification of Veillonella spp. on Tongue Plaque and Saliva Using Real-Time PCR

Veillonella spp., Gram-negative obligate anaerobic cocci bacteria, amounts to 3% in the oral cavity, relies on the fermentation of lactate as a carbon and energy source for growth. The bacteria are considered anti-cariogenic as they metabolize lactic acid into propionic acid which increases oral environment’s pH and reduces demineralization rate of tooth structure. Identification of Veillonella spp. using traditional methods is difficult due to the lack of conventional phenotypic and biochemical tests. Thus, the biomolecular methods are suitable for the specific detection and identification of Veillonella spp. One of the biomolecular methods that can be used is real-time Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR), which the results can be qualitative and quantitative. This study aimed to identify Veillonella spp. in tongue plaque’s and saliva’s samples using Real -time PCR. The DNA of Veillonella spp. derived from 36 samples, 18 samples of tongue plaque and 18 samples of saliva, were extracted using a freeze-thaw method and then quantified by real-time PCR using forward primer 5’-CCG TGA TGG GAT GGA AAC TGC-3’ and reverse primer 5’-CCT TCG CCA CTG GTG TTC TTC-3’. Veillonella spp. in 18 samples of tongue plaque was 3,06 x 107 CFU/ml and in 18 saliva samples was 1,51 x 105 CFU/ml. It was concluded real-time PCR can detect Veillonella spp. from all tongue plaque’s and saliva’s samples.

Diffusion analysis and modeling of kinetic behavior for treatment of brine water using electrodialysis process

In this study, the removal of monovalent and divalent cations, Na+, K+, Mg2+, and Ca2+, in a diluted solution from Chott-El Jerid Lake, Tunisia, was investigated with the electrodialysis technique. The process was tested using two cation-exchange membranes: sulfonated polyether sulfone cross-linked with 10% hexamethylenediamine (HEXCl) and sulfonated polyether sulfone grafted with octylamine (S-PESOS). The commercially available membrane Nafion® was used for comparison. The results showed that Nafion® and S-PESOS membranes had similar removal behaviors, and the investigated cations were ranked in the following descending order in terms of their demineralization rates: Na+ > Ca2+ > Mg2+ > K+. Divalent cations were more effectively removed by HEXCl than by monovalent cations. The plots based on the Weber–Morris model showed a strong linearity. This reveals that intra-particle diffusion was not the removal rate-determining step, and the removal process was controlled by two or more concurrent mechanisms. The Boyd plots did not pass through their origin, and the sole controlling step was determined by film-diffusion resistance, especially after a long period of electrodialysis. Additionally, a semi-empirical model was established to simulate the temporal variation of the treatment process, and the physical significance and values of model parameters were compared for the three membranes. The findings of this study indicate that HEXCl and S-PESOS membranes can be efficiently utilized for water softening, especially when effluents are highly loaded with calcium and magnesium ions.

The effect of acid whey composition on the removal of calcium and lactate during electrodialysis

This study investigated the effect of compositional differences in acid whey from cottage cheese (CAW), quark (QAW), lactose free skyr (LFAW) and normal skyr (NAW) on the rate and extension of deacidification, demineralisation and energy consumption during electrodialysis at 10 V for 180 min. The results showed that the presence of minor amounts of carbohydrates, proteins and salts in acid whey influenced both the removal of lactate and minerals. Under the same processing conditions, 91% of lactate was removed from CAW while only 78% from QAW, which had the highest phosphate concentration. 80% of K+ and 80% of Mg2+ and Ca2+ were removed faster in CAW likely due to the highest whey protein concentration. Furthermore, lower Mg2+ and Ca2+ were removed from whey with high concentrations of sugars (LFAW). The energy consumption was found to be most dependent on conductivity and therefore lowest for CAW and highest for QAW.