Defensive Wall Research Articles

The wheat secreted root proteome: Implications for phosphorus mobilisation and biotic interactions

Root secreted acid phosphatases and organic anions are widely perceived as major players of plant phosphorus (P) mobilisation from the rhizosphere under P limiting growth conditions. Previous research indicated that other mechanisms play a role, especially in species with fine roots, such as wheat. In this study we characterised the plant-derived extracellular proteome of wheat roots by profiling root tip mucilage, soluble root secreted and root tip proteomes. Extracellular acid phosphatases and enzymes of the central carbon metabolism were targeted using selected reaction monitoring. More than 140 proteins with extracellular localisation prediction were identified in mucilage. P starvation induced proteins predicted to be localised to the apoplast which are related to cell wall modification and defence in both, root tip and soluble root-secreted proteomes. Glycolytic enzymes were strongly increased in abundance by P limitation in root tips, as were PEPC and plastidial MDH. Soluble acid phosphatases were not identified in extracellular protein samples. Our results indicate that root tip mucilage contains proteins with the functional potential to actively shape their immediate environment by modification of plant structural components and biotic interactions. Wheat acid phosphatases appear to play a minor role in P mobilisation beyond the immediate root surface. SignificancePhosphorus (P) is a plant growth limiting nutrient in many agricultural situations and the development of phosphorus efficient crops is of paramount importance for future agricultural management practices. As P is relatively immobile in soils, processes occurring at the root-soil interface, the rhizosphere, are suspected to play a key role in plant-induced P mobilisation. According to the current view, the secretion of extracellular acid phosphatases and organic anions enhances P mobilisation within several millimetres beyond the root surface, either directly or indirectly through the selection and appropriate soil microbes. However, the mechanisms of P mobilisation in species with fine roots, such as wheat, and the role of other secreted root proteins are poorly understood. Here, we carried out the profiling of wheat root tip mucilage, soluble root secreted and root tip proteomes. We analysed proteome changes in response to P starvation. We found that proteins with a predicted localisation to the apoplast made up a major proportion of stress-responsive proteins. Acid phosphatases were not identified within extracellular protein samples, which were enriched in proteins with predicted extracellular localisation. The absence of extracellular APases was further validated by multiple reaction monitoring. Our data indicates that wheat acid phosphatases play a minor role in P mobilisation beyond the immediate root surface and provides a resource for breeding strategies and further investigations of the functional roles of root tip-released proteins in the rhizosphere under P limitation.

HISTORICAL FORTIFICATIONS IN THE ARCHITECTURAL AND URBAN PLANNING STRUCTURE OF LVIV (ON MARGINES DOCUMENTATION "HISTORICAL AND ARCHITECTURAL REFERENCE PLAN OF LVIV")

Ancient city fortifications are one of the specific types of defensive architecture. Along with the buildings of castles, blocks of urban residential development, monastery complexes and field defensive structures, they formed a special type of architectural and urban planning objects. During their construction, the skills of both an architect, builder, and military engineer were often combined. Not so many objects of urban defense architecture have come down to our time. Therefore, every fragment of the city's defensive walls and earthen fortifications preserved today, as a rule, is a valuable document of its era and needs careful protection and preservation. Urban fortifications (as opposed to fortifications of castles or fortresses) were the objects of priority liquidation in the process of urban development. There are very few of them preserved in Ukraine, so their preservation and study is a matter of extreme importance. Lviv is a unique city on the map of Ukraine in terms of the development of urban fortifications. The article analyzes the reflection of objects and monuments of defense construction in the scientific and design documentation "Historical and Architectural Reference Plan of the City of Lviv". Data on the stages of development of Lviv fortifications are highlighted. Special attention is paid to the remains of fortifications that have been preserved in the archaeological form. Their identification, conservation and identification is important task for modern urban development projects. The paper makes hypotheses about some hitherto unidentified elements of fortifications of the XVII-XVIII centuries. Special emphasis is placed on the need for a special scientific study on the detailed reconstruction of all stages of the development of defense belts around the city center and suburbs of Lviv

TRENDS IN THE DESIGN AND BUILDING OF LVIV IN THE XIX-EARLY XX CENTURY

The central part of Lviv was formed over several centuries and in several stages. Favourable demographic, economic and political prerequisites in the XIX-XX centuries positively influenced the quantitative and qualitative state of urban homes. Demolition of defensive walls, the formation of a new citywide centre, measures to improve the central part of the city, regulate the street network, and increase the population are the main factors that underlie the planning and development of the city. The city was actively built up. Most of the houses were profitable. These are buildings that brought profit to their owners through rented premises and commercial parterre floors. The modern architecture of Lviv is developing under the influence of tourist infrastructure and the ordinary household needs of Lviv residents. The urban space of the central part of modern Lviv needs to be regularly updated to perform functions that are dictated by time. It is also important to preserve the existing historical centre that attracts tourists, represents the historical value and pride of the country. Professional implementation of projects requires a detailed study and analysis of the existing architecture. Since the second half of the XIX century, the development of houses parallel to the main roads of the city became popular. Dense buildings spread in concentric circles from the city centre and gradually replaced low-rise buildings in the peripheral part of the city. During this period, housing construction is carried out on a large scale. These are mostly two- or three-story houses, often with a courtyard. The size and configuration of the houses were dictated by technical capabilities, existing buildings and streets. The sites often had a complex shape, the development was carried out already in the conditions of reconstruction, which significantly complicated the solution of new projects. The houses had rectangular forms of plans, the dimensions of which averaged 400 m2 until the end of the XIX century. During the twentieth century, slightly larger plots – 570 m2 – were already allocated for construction. The built-up area on the plots ranged from 30 to 87 per cent. The density of buildings was dictated by both economic and practical factors that are relevant even today. The houses were distinguished by interesting planning solutions with a thorough set of architectural details both in the exterior and in the interior. The range of rooms includes dining rooms, offices, boudoirs, bathrooms, corridors and storerooms. During the nineteenth century, in the decisions of facades dominated Italian neo-Renaissance and neo-Baroque; in the twentieth century – secession. The style solution was based on the choice of details that were prototypes of classical architectural images. The architecture of Lviv of the XIX-XX centuries represents a wide range of artistic interpretations. The study of houses built during this period reveals both their development and the transformation of spatial planning, compositional and stylistic solutions. The necessary formative periods of historicism opened up new angles for the development of subsequent stylistic trends in the following years. The experience of architects, which is connected with the historical past of Lviv, testifies to the significant importance and place of the architecture of the XIX-XX centuries for the further development and development of the city.

АНТИЧНЫЕ ПОСЕЛЕНИЯ ГОРОДСКОГО ТИПА НИЗМЕННОГО КАРАБАХА

The archaeological research indicated a large number and significant density of settlements of different times on the territory of Azerbaijan, which is mainly due to the fact that there were all the necessary conditions for the emergence of settlements. The decisive condition for their emergence has always been the presence of certain material prerequisites for life, as well as the possibility of defending a given area. The analysis of archaeological materials draws a picture of life in the cities of Albania in the period of antiquity. These cities were administrative and trade and craft centers with developed money circulation. In the cities of Albania, such types of handicrafts as pottery, metallurgy and metalworking, jewelry, glass making, as well as weaving and leatherworking were developed. In their development, a significant role played the trade routes of that time passing through the territory of Albania, one of which was the waterway along the Kura River. Keywords: Albania, Karabakh, cities, base of column, defensive walls

Thinopyrum intermedium TiAP1 interacts with a chitin deacetylase from Blumeria graminis f. sp. tritici and increases the resistance to Bgt in wheat.

SummaryThe biotrophic fungal pathogen Blumeria graminis f. sp. tritici (Bgt) is a crucial factor causing reduction in global wheat production. Wild wheat relatives, for example Thinopyrum intermedium, is one of the wild‐used parents in wheat disease‐resistant breeding. From T. intermedium line, we identified the aspartic protease gene, TiAP1, which is involved in resistance against Bgt. TiAP1 is a secreted protein that accumulates in large amounts at the infection sites of Bgt and extends to the intercellular space. Yeast two‐hybrid, luciferase complementation imaging and bimolecular florescent complimentary analysis showed that TiAP1 interacted with the chitin deacetylase (BgtCDA1) of Bgt. The yeast expression, purification and in vitro test confirmed the chitin deacetylase activity of BgtCDA1. The bombardment and VIGS‐mediated host‐induced gene silencing showed that BgtCDA1 promotes the invasion of Bgt. Transcriptome analysis showed the cell wall xylan metabolism, lignin biosynthesis‐related and defence genes involved in the signal transduction were up‐regulated in the transgenic TiAP1 wheat induced by Bgt. The TiAP1 in wheat may inactivate the deacetylation function of BgtCDA1, cause chitin oligomers expose to wheat chitin receptor, then trigger the wheat immune response to inhibit the growth and penetration of Bgt, and thereby enhance the resistance of wheat to pathogens.

Fibre-Reinforced Concrete Is Sustainable and Cost-Effective for Water-Retaining Structures

Although fibre-reinforced-concrete (FRC) is increasingly used, it has been occasionally applied to water-retaining structures (WRSs), and no comprehensive design guidelines are currently available for the design of WRSs with FRC. A design methodology for such applications based on available recommendations and research has been applied to three reference scenarios representing a wide range of WRSs: a flood defence wall, a weir wall, and a swimming pool wall. For each of these scenarios, alternative designs using different FRC mix designs have been compared through the statistical analysis of several relevant parameters. This study confirms that the use of FRC significantly reduces reinforcement requirements when compared to conventional reinforced concrete solutions. Clear trends have been identified between the structural performance of the resulting WRS designs, the FRC mix characteristics and the fibre type and dimensions. This study has considered not only structural performance but also the total cost and environmental footprint per unit length of WRSs, and these considerations further the case for adoption of FRC in such applications. Overall, fibre dosages below 0.75% and 2% in volume for steel and synthetic fibres, respectively, can lead to WRS designs with lower cost and carbon footprint than their reinforced concrete counterparts.

Тошкент дарвозалари

nformation about the first 12 gates located in the territory of Tashkent, its construction, as well as the names of these gates are stated. In the history of the ancient and ancient city of Tashkent you can find a lot of information about the city gates. Sources say that the castle was built in the IX-X centuries in the market area in the city center. It is surrounded by defensive walls. Gates are installed on the defensive walls. According to some sources, the number of ancient gates of Tashkent varied in different periods. For example, in the XVIII century there were 8 gates, and by the XIX century their number increased to 12. During this period, Tashkent was crossed by 8 main roads, which were the main trade routes. The city of Tashkent, a crossroads between East and West, sought to protect itself from external enemies. The defensive wall of the city had 12 gates (Takhtapul, Labzak, Kashgar, Kokand, Koymas, Beshyogoch, Kamalon, Samarkand, Kokcha, Chigatay, Sagbon, Karasaray) and two gates (i.e., a gate for 1 horseman). Of these, the gates of Labzak, Kashgar, Kokand, and Koymas were built on the eastern side of the part that was later annexed to the city, some of which were replaced. The names have also changed due to the relocation.

Combined Abiotic Stresses Repress Defense and Cell Wall Metabolic Genes and Render Plants More Susceptible to Pathogen Infection.

Plants are frequently exposed to simultaneous abiotic and biotic stresses, a condition that induces complex responses, negatively affects crop productivity and is becoming more exacerbated with current climate change. In this study, we investigated the effects of individual and combined heat and osmotic stresses on Arabidopsis susceptibility to the biotrophic pathogen Pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato (Pst) and the necrotrophic pathogen Botrytis cinerea (Bc). Our data showed that combined abiotic and biotic stresses caused an enhanced negative impact on plant disease resistance in comparison with individual Pst and Bc infections. Pretreating plants with individual heat or combined osmotic-heat stress strongly reduced the expression of many defense genes including pathogenesis-related proteins (PR-1 and PR-5) and the TN-13 gene encoding the TIR-NBS protein, which are involved in disease resistance towards Pst. We also found that combined osmotic-heat stress caused high plant susceptibility to Bc infection and reduced expression of a number of defense genes, including PLANT DEFENSIN 1.3 (PDF1.3), BOTRYTIS SUSCEPTIBLE 1 (BOS1) and THIONIN 2.2 (THI2.2) genes, which are important for disease resistance towards Bc. The impaired disease resistance against both Pst and Bc under combined abiotic stress is associated with reduced expression of cell wall-related genes. Taken together, our data emphasize that the combination of global warming-associated abiotic stresses such as heat and osmotic stresses makes plants more susceptible to pathogen infection, thus threatening future global food security.

Amersfoort’s city walls

The development of Amersfoort’s two city walls can be divided into five periods. The first city wall was built in the first period 1259-1379. Although Amersfoort had been granted a charter in 1259, construction of the wall did not commence until after a serious assault by troops from the duchy of Gelre (Geulders) in 1274. The defensive wall was made stronger on that side, probably in expectation of more attacks from that direction.
 Between 1380 and 1500 Gelre troops attacked Amersfoort on multiple occasions and offensive firepower increased. Interestingly, Amersfoort opted to build a second city wall rather than reinforcing the existing one, considerably increasing the size of the city in the process. However, the project proved difficult to finance, defend and maintain, most likely due to the stagnating economy. Instead of being demolished after the second wall was in place, the first wall was reinforced with abutting houses, thereby becoming a kind of rampart within a rampart.
 The new fortifications turned out to be ineffective and in 1501 the city council decided to demolish the first city wall. This freed up space for a second generation of wall houses, mostly built from reused stone and with their front elevation on the trajectory of the first wall, with the exception of the houses along Krankeledenstraat and the southern section of Breestraat. In this same period, up until 1644, there was an attempt to strengthen Amersfoort’s defences. Several fortification plans were drawn up, none of which was implemented in its entirety, most probably due to a lack of financial resources. The ramparts that were realized are concentrated in the south-west since in this period the possibility of a new Spanish incursion was greater than any threat from Gelre.
 In the third period, 1645-1828, the council’s approval of additional openings in the city wall marked the beginning of a gradual deterioration of the defensive works. They had always been a big budget item, yet they had not been particularly effective. Accordingly, the council decided to convert the fortifications into lucrative functions. The Davidsbolwerk, for example, was turned into a cemetery. The most extensive demolition probably started in 1778 when it was also decided to dismantle various outer and inner gates in the second city wall.
 By 1829 the fortifications had entirely lost their defensive function and the city council proposed converting the outer line into a green pathway encircling the city, which would have resulted in the disappearance of all remaining traces of the wall. However, this was averted in 1844 by a national ban on the demolition of fortifications and they were subsequently integrated with the walking route. City planners continued to submit applications for demolition but encountered fierce resistance from heritage organizations. In addition, many remnants avoided demolition because most urban expansion occurred outside the historical centre. This resulted in a concomitant shift in the economic focus so that the fortifications no longer needed to be sacrificed to industrial development. Towards the end of the nineteenth century, with appreciation for the heritage value of fortifications growing, money became available for their restoration and Amersfoort’s historical centre was declared a conservation area.

Казармы римского гарнизона в Ольвии

The author has identified some new locations of the Roman garrison within previously known architectural objects, based on the mappings of the finds associated with the Roman troops. These are seven barracks (contubernia) adjoining the defensive wall and tower in the Lower City of Olbia, which were studied in 1930s. In a lateral premise, which should belong to the Roman officer according to the Roman military planning, a few marble bases of the internal columns were found, with the name of the centurion M. Emilius Severinus of the legio I Italica. The layout of the architectural complex located to the south of the barracks resembles some administrative buildings of the Roman camps like a principia — the officers’ house, which consisted of a number of rooms located along the perimeter around the courtyard: with a separate kitchen, a dining room, a central sanctuary room (aedes principiorum), where legionary signs (signa militaria) were stored, altars, and statues of deities and emperors. This can be evidenced by the architectural details found during the excavations, terracotta in the form of eagles and Roman soldiers, Roman weapons and equipment. A similar arrangement of barracks in Olbia is known on the citadel, under the northern defensive wall. The problem of interpretation of the praetorium building in Olbia is also considered, some quarters of which could serve as Roman barracks. The construction of the barrack blocks and headquarters buildings can be attributed to the second half of the II century AD — the time when a regular Roman garrison appeared in Olbia.

ШАРҚИЙ ОРОЛБЎЙИ САК ҚАБИЛАЛАРИ ЁДГОРЛИКЛАРИНИНГ ЎРГАНИЛИШИ

The article provides a scientific analysis of the study of the sites of Saks in the Eastern Aral Sea region. It is noted that the ruins of the city and other archaeological sites located in the eastern part of the Aral Sea and inthe middle part of the Syr Darya were first described historically and geographically in the late 19th -early 20th centuries. It is shown that the geographical environment, warm and humid air, an abundance of fresh water in the Eastern Aral Sea region have long created favorable conditions for human life, influencing the economy, lifestyle and material culture of the ancient population of the Lower Syrdarya and played an important role in historical development. A large group of Saka monuments was discovered in the Jetiosor oasis adjacent to the Eskidarya valley of the Syrdarya. It is located north of the Inkardarya and Dzhanidarya rivers, southwest of the modern city of Dzhusali. In the southern part of the delta of the Lower Syrdarya (tributaries of the Inkardarya), settlements and mounds of the first Saka culture (South Tagisken, Uygarak) were identified, it was revealed that the pastoralists led a semi-nomadic lifestyle and lived in settlements that were not surrounded. defensive walls. The importance of expanding archaeological materials in promoting scientific issues and developing new topics on the history of the Saks of the Aral Sea is emphasized. They are a determining factor in the dynamics of the development of knowledge about the historical past.In particular, it is argued that the comparison of written sources and the results of archaeologicalresearch is important in the process of historical reconstruction

THE INFLUENCE OF ARAB CALIPHATE ON FORMATION OF BUKHARA URBAN CULTURE

The article deals with the formation and development of city culture, in particular, the changes in city life during the Arab Caliphate. In the VI-VII centuries the city of and its environs were ruled by Bukhara gods. The city consisted of arches, inner and outer city parts. At the beginning of the VIII century was conquered by the Arab caliphate. During the Arab period, the structure of the city, the location of the population, housing, the construction of defensive walls underwent changes. During this period, the first mosques were built.

Defensive Walls of Tobolsk Kremlin: a Historical and Architectural Sketch

The article was prepared in connection with the announcement of the year of Semyon Ulyanovich Remezov in the city of Tobolsk in 2021. Information has been collected on the history of the construction and rebuilding of the fortress walls and towers of the Tobolsk Kremlin, which rarely attracted the attention of researchers. A review of the history of the fence construction in the Sofia courtyard is carried out. Particular attention is paid to the stages of the construction of the Kremlin stone walls, the surviving elements of defensive architecture in them. The authors clarify some provisions from the classical works of V. I. Kochedamov, draw on new sources, including photographs from restoration work in the middle of the 20th century from the funds of the Tobolsk Historical and Architectural Museum-Reserve. The results of a comparative architectural analysis of the Kremlin walls of Tobolsk with synchronous and previous monuments of Russian military architecture are presented in the article. It has been established that the walls of the Tobolsk Kremlin were more of a symbolic-decorative than a military char-acter. It was determined that they represented a symbiosis of the Moscow Kremlin architecture of the late 15th century with the architecture of the Smolensk fortress wall, 17th century monastery fences and, possibly, the fence of the Bishops' court in Rostov.

Investigation of cell wall proteins of C. sinensis leaves by combining cell wall proteomics and N-glycoproteomics

BackgroundC. sinensis is an important economic crop with fluoride over-accumulation in its leaves, which poses a serious threat to human health due to its leaf consumption as tea. Recently, our study has indicated that cell wall proteins (CWPs) probably play a vital role in fluoride accumulation/detoxification in C. sinensis. However, there has been a lack in CWP identification and characterization up to now. This study is aimed to characterize cell wall proteome of C. sinensis leaves and to develop more CWPs related to stress response. A strategy of combined cell wall proteomics and N-glycoproteomics was employed to investigate CWPs. CWPs were extracted by sequential salt buffers, while N-glycoproteins were enriched by hydrophilic interaction chromatography method using C. sinensis leaves as a material. Afterwards all the proteins were subjected to UPLC-MS/MS analysis.ResultsA total of 501 CWPs and 195 CWPs were identified respectively by cell wall proteomics and N-glycoproteomics profiling with 118 CWPs in common. Notably, N-glycoproteomics is a feasible method for CWP identification, and it can enhance CWP coverage. Among identified CWPs, proteins acting on cell wall polysaccharides constitute the largest functional class, most of which might be involved in cell wall structure remodeling. The second largest functional class mainly encompass various proteases related to CWP turnover and maturation. Oxidoreductases represent the third largest functional class, most of which (especially Class III peroxidases) participate in defense response. As expected, identified CWPs are mainly related to plant cell wall formation and defense response.ConclusionThis was the first large-scale investigation of CWPs in C. sinensis through cell wall proteomics and N-glycoproteomics. Our results not only provide a database for further research on CWPs, but also an insight into cell wall formation and defense response in C. sinensis.

FDEM and ERT measurements for archaeological prospections at Nuraghe S'Urachi (West‐Central Sardinia)

AbstractNuraghe S'Urachi is a monumental architectural complex in West Central Sardinia that was probably first built in the Bronze Age and remained occupied continuously into the early Roman Imperial period. It has been the object of systematic and large‐scale archaeological investigations in three different phases since 1948 when the first excavations revealed a complex building within a massive defensive wall and multiple towers. Intermittent fieldwork between the 1980s and 2005 subsequently showed that the central nuraghe might comprise up to five principal towers. In 2013, a new collaborative research project, sponsored by Brown University and the Municipality of San Vero Milis, brought together a multidisciplinary research project to investigate this important archaeological site. In this framework, multi‐frequency and multi‐coil electromagnetic measurements (FDEM) and Electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) were carried out in 2018, 2019, and 2020, over and close to the nuraghe towers, to gain a better understanding of the inner part of the main structure and to investigate the surrounding area that was intensively settled in Phoenician and Punic times. The preliminary results of the geophysical measurements provide new and interesting evidence that supports new hypotheses and suggests possible future archaeological and geophysical strategies to investigate the unexcavated part of the archaeological site of S'Urachi.

Numerical Evaluation of Safety Wall Bending Strength during Hydrogen Explosion

The main aims of this study are to assess numerically the stress state of a solid wall which is installed at the hydrogen fueling station in order to protect personnel from the consequences of the accidental hydrogen explosion, define the bending stress values in the foot of the wall exposed to explosion wave pressure forces and located at different distances from explosion epicenter in order to choose appropriate construction material of the wall and assess the minimum thickness of the wall satisfying bending strength condition. A three-dimensional mathematical model of hydrogen-air mixture explosion is used to define the distribution of the maximum overpressure on the wall surface. To assess the bending stress state at the foot of the wall, the design scheme of a cantilever beam is considered. It is assumed that the maximum overpressure force field influences the wall at the same time to assess the worst possible scenario. Actually, the computer-based methodology of how to resolve a coupled problem of explosion gas dynamics and defense wall strength is suggested. This technique allows evaluating of the construction parameters of the wall, which protects the personnel against consequences of the explosion wave exposure, without the destruction of the wall.

Comparative Analysis of Akebia trifoliata Fruit Softening at Different Flesh Ripening Stages Using Tandem Mass Tag Technology.

Owing to its medicinal and high nutritional values, Akebia trifoliata can be considered as a new type of medicinal and edible homologous resources, and it has begun to be widely cultivated in many areas of China. Over-softening of fruit would affect the sensorial quality, utilization rate, and consumer acceptance of the fruit postharvest. However, fruit softening has not been characterized and the molecular mechanism underlying A. trifoliata fruit softening during ripening remains unclear. A comparative proteomic analysis was performed on the fruit at three developmental stages using tandem mass tag technology. In total, 2,839 proteins and 302 differentially abundant proteins (DAPs) were identified. Bioinformatics analysis indicated that most DAPs were implicated in oxidoreductase activity, protein domain-specific binding and pyruvate metabolism. Moreover, 29 DAPs associated with cell wall metabolism, plant hormone, and stress and defense response pathways were validated using quantitative PCR. Notably, pectinesterase, pectate lyase, and β-galactosidase, which are involved in cell wall degradation, as well as gibberellin regulated protein, cysteine protease, thaumatin-like protein and heat shock proteins which is involved in plant hormone, and stress and defense response, were significantly up-regulated in softening fruit compared with the levels in non-softening fruit. This indicated that they might play key roles in A. trifoliata fruit softening. Our findings will provide new insights into potential genes influencing fruit softening traits of A. trifoliata, which will help to develop strategies to improve fruit quality and reduce softening-related losses.

발해(渤海)-거란(契丹) 전쟁의 발생배경과 전개과정

At the time of the foundation, Balhae established friendly relations with Khitan, because these two peoples had a common goal that broke away from the pressure of the Tang Dynasty. In the 8th century, Balhae maintained no hostile relations with Khitan; but the situation was changed in the 9th century when Khitan extended its power. Balhae had the defense system against Khitan as stationing troops in Buyeo Province.<BR> Yelü Abaoji who accomplished the unification of groups in Khitan and put down the rebellion raised by his brothers became the emperor in 916. For him, it was a prerequisite to weaken the power of neighboring countries to achieve his aim to occupy Zhongyuan(中原) in China. Therefore, he made an elaborate plan to attack political groups in the western area and Balhae.<BR> In order to establish a foothold to conquer Balhae, Khitan advanced into Liaoning Province. Khitan built a defensive wall along the estuary of the Liaoning River, and seized Yoyanggoseong Fortress to prepare for attack of Balhae troops from Jangryeong and Amrok Provinces. After the establishment of the defense system against Balhae, Khitan concentrated its efforts to occupy Hebei Province and the western area by the early 920s.<BR> In 924, Khitan completed the conquest of the western area, and then went to a total war with Balhae in December 925. It seems that Balhae was collapsed in January 926. The Khitan forces aimed to attract the main forces of Balhae in Liaodong Province. Under these circumstances, the defense system of Balhae that laid stress on Buyeo Province was weaken; and the Khitan forces attacked Buyeo Province. These resulted in the collapse of Balhae.

Transcriptome Analysis of Tolerant and Susceptible Maize Genotypes Reveals Novel Insights about the Molecular Mechanisms Underlying Drought Responses in Leaves.

Maize (Zea mays L.) is the most essential food crop in the world. However, maize is highly susceptible to drought stress, especially at the seedling stage, and the molecular mechanisms underlying drought tolerance remain elusive. In this study, we conducted comparative transcriptome and physiological analyses of drought-tolerant (CML69) and susceptible (LX9801) inbred lines subjected to drought treatment at the seedling stage for three and five days. The tolerant line had significantly higher relative water content in the leaves, as well as lower electrolyte leakage and malondialdehyde levels, than the susceptible line. Using an RNA-seq-based approach, we identified 10,084 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) with 6906 and 3178 DEGs been annotated and unannotated, respectively. Two critical sets of drought-responsive DEGs, including 4687 genotype-specific and 2219 common drought-responsive genes, were mined out of the annotated DEGs. The tolerant-line DEGs were predominantly associated with the cytoskeleton, cell wall modification, glycolysis/gluconeogenesis, transport, osmotic regulation, drought avoidance, ROS scavengers, defense, and transcriptional factors. For the susceptible line, the DEGs were highly enriched in the photosynthesis, histone, and carbon fixation pathways. The unannotated DEGs were implicated in lncRNAs, including 428 previously reported and 22% putative TE-lncRNAs. There was consensus on both the physiological response and RNA-seq outcomes. Collectively, our findings will provide a comprehensive basis of the molecular networks mediating drought stress tolerance of maize at the seedling stage.

Tomato Graft Union Failure Is Associated with Alterations in Tissue Development and the Onset of Cell Wall Defense Responses

Grafting is a technique applied to a considerable number of crops, with tomato standing out. However, this technique is limited by the obtaining of unfunctional grafts, which decrease the success rate and therefore the benefits achieved. The aim of this work was to analyze the failure in intraspecific grafting of tomato plants, focusing on tissue development, cell wall defense reactions, and the distribution of starch and soluble sugars at the graft junction. The success rate in autografts was higher than that of homografts and heterografts. Unfunctional homografts and heterografts showed similar responses: absence of vascular reconnections and lack of adhesion between scion and rootstock, even though callus cell clusters and differentiation of new vasculature were produced. The scions of unfunctional grafts accumulated more starch and soluble sugars than the rootstocks, showing a strong asymmetry in the response. In addition, three types of deposits were observed in the cell walls of unfunctional grafts: lignin, suberin, and callose, with the combined accumulation of more than one of them being frequent, particularly lignin and suberin. These deposits apparently prevent adhesion and seem to be a major cause of graft failure.