Dead Sea Region Research Articles

A Drought Adaptation Management System for Groundwater Resources Based on Combined Drought Index and Vulnerability Analysis

Water scarcity is one of the largest global risks in terms of potential impact over the next decade as it affects every continent is manifested by partial or no satisfaction of expressed demand, economic competition for water quantity or quality, disputes between users, irreversible depletion of groundwater, and negative impacts on the environment. Jordanian water crises are exacerbating all of the time due to increased water demands derived from high population growth, sudden fluxes of refugees, economic development, and increased frequency of drought events. These forces stress the urgent need to develop drought adaptation planning based on vulnerability mapping correlated to prolonged weather events. The objective of this research is thus to generate a drought vulnerability map with an emphasis on the severity and probability of drought occurrence, and to propose adaption measures based on groundwater sector impact chain analysis by incorporating numerical scorings for exposure, sensitivity, and adaptive capacities at groundwater basin and Jordanian district levels. Drought impacts on groundwater basins were investigated based on measurements of severity and probability of drought occurrence, and drought exposure over the whole country computed by means of a combined drought index (CDI) that included the precipitation drought index, temperature drought index, and vegetation drought index from 1980 to 2017. Results indicated that drought in Jordan is characterised by a temporal and spatial variability regarding probability and severity. The most prolonged drought events range from mild to moderate, with long periods of exposure that may extend for up to 13 consecutive years. Due to high groundwater basin sensitivity and low adaptive capacity, the groundwater systems in Jordan are fragile and highly vulnerable to drought impacts, being subject to either reduction in quantity and/or deterioration in quality over time. The most vulnerable groundwater basins are the Azraq and Dead Sea regions, while Disi and Yarmouk are also highly vulnerable groundwater basins based on the weak enforcement of transboundary agreements. The proposed drought risk management system based on this research includes proactive and contingency plans enabled by policies and legal frameworks at the national level to ensure sustainable water resilience and governance.

Isolation and Characterization of Halotolerant Plant Growth Promoting Rhizobacteria From Durum Wheat (Triticum turgidum subsp. durum) Cultivated in Saline Areas of the Dead Sea Region.

Plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) are beneficial microorganisms that can be utilized to improve plant responses against biotic and abiotic stresses. In this study, 74 halotolerant bacterial isolates were isolated from rhizosphere and endorhizosphere of durum wheat (Triticum turgidum subsp. durum) plants cultivated in saline environments in the Ghor region near the east of the Dead Sea. 16S rDNA partial sequences and phylogenetic analysis of 62 isolates showed clear clustering of the isolates into three phyla: Firmicutes (61.3%), Proteobacteria (29.0%), and Actinobacteria (9.7%). At the genus level, the majority of them were grouped within the Bacillus, Oceanobacillus, and Halomonas genera. The isolates, which possessed plant growth promoting traits including nitrogen fixation, ACC deaminase activity, auxin production, inorganic phosphate solubilization and siderophore production, were selected. The effect of the inoculation of selected PGPR strains on growth of salt sensitive and salt tolerant durum wheat genotypes under high salt stress conditions was evaluated. Six halotolerant PGPR strains were able to improve survival in inoculated plants under high salinity stress conditions as reflected in higher germination percentages and seedling root growth when compared with non-inoculated plants. Furthermore, three halotolerant PGPR strains were able to improve durum wheat tolerance to water deficit stress. In addition, antagonistic effect in four halotolerant PGPR strains against an aggressive pathogenic isolate of Fusarium culmorum that causes crown rot disease was observed in a dual culture assay. In conclusion, the halotolerant PGPR strains described in this study might have great potential to improve durum wheat productivity under different stress conditions.

Cryptokerpia sarlaccophora gen. et sp. nov., an enigmatic plant fossil from the Late Permian Umm Irna Formation of Jordan

Cryptokerpia sarlaccophora gen. et sp. nov., an enigmatic type of gymnosperm leaf, is described based on dispersed cuticles retrieved from bulk-macerated samples of the Umm Irna Formation (Upper Permian) of the Dead Sea Region, Jordan. The most prominent diagnostic feature of the new genus is that stomatal pores are sunken deep into the epidermis at the bottom of multi-cellular stomatal crypts that are lined with multiple tiers of papillae. Vaguely similar ‘stomatal tubes’ are known from several plant groups (e.g., conifers, Bennettitales, Proteaceae, noeggerathiopsids), but are readily distinguished by their epidermal features and gross morphology. The Umm Irna Formation provides a unique window into rarely preserved dry-standing elements and demonstrates that, when these groups are preserved, they still hold great potential for future research.

A new Dead Sea pollen record reveals the last glacial paleoenvironment of the southern Levant

The southern Levant is a key region for studying vegetation developments in relation to climate dynamics and hominin migration processes in the past due to the sensitivity of the vegetation to climate variations and the long history of different anthropogenic occupation phases. However, paleoenvironmental conditions in the southern Levant during the Late Pleistocene were still insufficiently understood. Therefore, we investigated the vegetation and fire history of the Dead Sea region during the last glacial period. We present a new palynological study conducted on sediments of Lake Lisan, the last glacial precursor of the Dead Sea. The sediments were recovered from the center of the modern Dead Sea within an ICDP campaign. The palynological results suggest that Irano-Turanian steppe and Saharo-Arabian desert vegetation prevailed in the Dead Sea region during the investigated period (ca. 88,000–14,000 years BP). Nevertheless, Mediterranean woodland elements significantly contributed to the vegetation composition, suggesting moderate amounts of available water for plants. The early last glacial was characterized by dynamic climate conditions with pronounced dry phases and high but unstable fire activity. Anatomically modern humans entered the southern Levant during a climatically stable phase (late MIS 4–MIS 3) with diverse habitats, constant moisture availability, and low fire activity. MIS 2 was the coldest phase of the investigated timeframe, causing changes in woodland composition and a widespread occurrence of steppe. We used a biome modeling approach to assess regional vegetation patterns under changing climate conditions and to evaluate different climate scenarios for the last glacial Levant. The study provides new insights into the environmental responses of the Dead Sea region to climate variations through time. It contributes towards our understanding of the paleoenvironmental conditions in the southern Levant, which functioned as an important corridor for human migration processes.

Developing GIS-based water poverty and rainwater harvesting suitability maps for domestic use in the Dead Sea region (West Bank, Palestine)

Abstract. In the arid region of the Dead Sea, water shortage and the inability to satisfy the increasing domestic water demand threatens sustainable development. In such situations, domestic rainwater harvesting is considered an efficient way to combat water poverty. This paper aims to develop domestic water poverty (DWP) and domestic rainwater harvesting suitability (DRWHS) maps for the West Bank, Palestine. The analytical hierarchy process (AHP) and the GIS-based weighted overlay summation process (WOSP) were utilized in the development of these maps. Results of the DWP map indicate that 57 % of the West Bank is under high to very high poverty of domestic water. The DRWHS map shows that 60 % of the West Bank is highly suitable for domestic rainwater harvesting. Spatial intersection (combined mapping) between DWP and DRWHS maps indicates that around 31 % of the total West Bank areas could be classified as high potential locations (hotspot areas) for adopting rainwater harvesting techniques for domestic purposes. The developed maps are valuable to the stakeholders to better identify the best areas of rainwater harvesting in the West Bank.

Calibrating a new attenuation curve for the Dead Sea region using surface wave dispersion surveys in sites damaged by the 1927 Jericho earthquake

Abstract. Instrumental strong motion data are not common around the Dead Sea region. Therefore, calibrating a new attenuation equation is a considerable challenge. However, the Holy Land has a remarkable historical archive, attesting to numerous regional and local earthquakes. Combining the historical record with new seismic measurements will improve the regional equation. On 11 July 1927, a rupture, in the crust in proximity to the northern Dead Sea, generated a moderate 6.2 ML earthquake. Up to 500 people were killed, and extensive destruction was recorded, even as far as 150 km from the focus. We consider local near-surface properties, in particular, the shear-wave velocity, as an amplification factor. Where the shear-wave velocity is low, the seismic intensity far from the focus would likely be greater than expected from a standard attenuation curve. In this work, we used the multichannel analysis of surface waves (MASW) method to estimate seismic wave velocity at anomalous sites in Israel in order to calibrate a new attenuation equation for the Dead Sea region. Our new attenuation equation contains a term which quantifies only lithological effects, while factors such as building quality, foundation depth, topography, earthquake directivity, type of fault, etc. remain out of our scope. Nonetheless, about 60 % of the measured anomalous sites fit expectations; therefore, this new ground-motion prediction equation (GMPE) is statistically better than the old ones. From our local point of view, this is the first time that integration of the 1927 historical data and modern shear-wave velocity profile measurements improved the attenuation equation (sometimes referred to as the attenuation relation) for the Dead Sea region. In the wider context, regions of low-to-moderate seismicity should use macroseismic earthquake data, together with modern measurements, in order to better estimate the peak ground acceleration or the seismic intensities to be caused by future earthquakes. This integration will conceivably lead to a better mitigation of damage from future earthquakes and should improve maps of seismic hazard.

Sinkholes as a source of life in the Dead Sea region

In recent decades, the Dead Sea region has suffered greatly from anthropogenic activities that have resulted in a massive decrease of the Dead Sea water level. This decrease has allowed the penetration of fresh ground water into the underground layer, which dissolved the salt layer and created sinkholes. Presently there are over 5000 sinkholes spread across the west bank of the Dead Sea, some of which are filled with water originating from rainfall, flash floods and spring water. Although sinkholes are detrimental to road infrastructure and tourist sites, they have dramatically increased the number of aquatic habitats surrounding the Dead Sea. In a cross-sectional study of 94 sinkholes along the north-west bank of the Dead Sea, coupled with a longitudinal study of six sinkholes, we examined how the community of invertebrates in the sinkholes is affected by environmental and geographic variables and how biological succession occurs in the sinkholes. We found that sinkholes are populated mainly by aquatic insects, which have high tolerance of a variety of environmental conditions. We also found that the community of invertebrates in the sinkholes is shaped by environmental variables such as salinity, pH, dissolved oxygen concentration, water temperature and the size of the sinkhole. We further found that the geographic distance between the sinkholes increases spatial species turnover and that species turnover across time was high. Patterns of species composition were similar in all the sinkholes, with the community structure during the wet season changing from early to mid-season, and then again from mid-season to late season. Interestingly, despite the extreme conditions of the water of the sinkholes, their seasonal succession processes were similar to those of temporary water bodies along the Mediterranean coast of Israel.

Integrating morphological characters, molecular markers, and distribution patterns to assess the identity of Blepharis species from Jordan

BackgroundBlepharis constitutes an important part of the vegetation of the Jordanian arid and semi-arid regions, yet whether one or more species of this genus occurs in the Jordanian area is uncertain. We addressed this question by assessing morphological characters and testing Inter-Simple Sequence Repeat (ISSR) markers from three populations of Blepharis: two northern (lower slopes of Kufranjah valley and the Dead Sea region) and one southern (Wadi al Yutm).ResultsShoots from randomly chosen Blepharis plants were harvested from each of the three populations for morphological and molecular analyses. In the northern populations, spikes were lax and bract width was significantly shorter than length of the longest lateral spine compared to the southern population. A multivariate linear discriminant analysis distinguished the northern populations from the southern one by internode length, bract width, longest lateral spine length, and bract width to spine length ratio. The ISSR analysis revealed that 44 markers across eight primers were polymorphic with major allele frequency of 83.6% and an average of 5.5 polymorphic markers per primer. The genetic resemblance among individuals ranged from 0.27 to 0.96. The three Blepharis populations were accordingly clustered into two distinct groups, similar to the analysis of morphological differences and corresponding with the “northern” and “southern” population designations.ConclusionsOur results strongly indicate the occurrence of two discrete Blepharis species in Jordan and reject the hypothesis that the genus is represented by only one species. We propose that the Blepharis species in Jordan are B. attenutata Napper (represented by the northern populations) and B. ciliaris (L.) B. L. Burtt (represented by the southern population). These findings are important for informing and revising floristic work within the region and an updated key has been included in our findings.

Investigations into the Holocene geology of the Dead Sea basin

This paper discusses the geological history and paleoclimate of the Dead Sea region based on drill hole data. A composite stratigraphic column for the Holocene period, of multiple lime carbonate and halite sedimentation, has been constructed for the southern Dead Sea basin. Integration of stratigraphic data with geochronology has shed new light on our understanding of Holocene sedimentation rates, tectonics, diapirism, the formation of sinkholes, lake levels, and paleoclimate. During this period, the southern basin has subsided at a rate of 8.5–11 m/ka, while the subsidence of the northern basin may have reached 25–30 m/ka. The Holocene has been divided into 13 major climatic intervals, starting with a very arid climate from ~ 11,700 to ~ 8800 BP, where halite precipitated in both basins, with the Dead Sea possibly reaching a level of ~ − 419 m msl. After ~ 8800 BP, there was a very intense pluviatile period, with the formation of alluvial fans opposite wadi channels reaching up to 45 m in thickness. An attempt has been made to construct a new Dead Sea-level curve, based on the mineralogical data and corrected for diapirism under the Lynch Straits and tectonic subsidence. The previous lake-level curves were based on elevations of shore-line facies in a tectonically active basin with differential subsidence. A new hypothesis is presented for sinkhole formation in both the northern and southern basins, which is considered to be initiated and controlled by active faulting, with the dissolution of the halite by artesian, undersaturated waters, more than the receding Dead Sea level. The brine level is rising in the southern basin. The findings from this research can act as a model for understanding the development of ancient and modern evaporites worldwide.

Detecting hierarchical levels of connectivity in a population of Acacia tortilis at the northern edge of the species' global distribution: Combining classical population genetics and network analyses.

Genetic diversity and structure of populations at the edge of the species’ spatial distribution are important for potential adaptation to environmental changes and consequently, for the long-term survival of the species. Here, we combined classical population genetic methods with newly developed network analyses to gain complementary insights into the genetic structure and diversity of Acacia tortilis, a keystone desert tree, at the northern edge of its global distribution, where the population is under threat from climatic, ecological, and anthropogenic changes. We sampled A. tortilis from 14 sites along the Dead Sea region and the Arava Valley in Israel and in Jordan. In addition, we obtained samples from Egypt and Sudan, the hypothesized origin of the species. Samples from all sites were genotyped using six polymorphic microsatellite loci.Our results indicate a significant genetic structure in A. tortilis along the Arava Valley. This was detected at different hierarchical levels—from the basic unit of the subpopulation, corresponding to groups of trees within ephemeral rivers (wadis), to groups of subpopulations (communities) that are genetically more connected relative to others. The latter structure mostly corresponds to the partition of the major drainage basins in the area. Network analyses, combined with classical methods, allowed for the identification of key A. tortilis subpopulations in this region, characterized by their relatively high level of genetic diversity and centrality in maintaining gene flow in the population. Characterizing such key subpopulations may enable conservation managers to focus their efforts on certain subpopulations that might be particularly important for the population’s long-term persistence, thus contributing to species conservation within its peripheral range.

Climatotherapy the Need for Novel Applications in Nigeria

Climatotherapy is the application of climatic elements for the treatments of skin diseases and infections which are vitiligo, atopic dermatitis, eczema etc. It also employs the utilization of springs, muds and clays of medicinal values through the inhalation, exposure and immersion for the treatment of chronic skin infections. Climatotherapy originated during the roman-empire and was a ritual practice amongst the Greeks, Babylonians and the Mesopotamians. It was founded by Hippocrates over 500 BC and has remain relevant since then even with the discovery and applications of pharmaceutical medicines. Climatotherapy also functions with other similar therapies which are balneotherapy, heliotherapy, fangotherapy, hydrotherapy, crenotherapy etc. The climate and geography of an area is the major determining factor in the application of spa therapy and climatotherapy and as such the most organized climatotherapy center is the Bulgaria coast of the black sea and the most widely visited and recognized climatotherapy center is the dead sea region in the middle east. Other areas of the world blessed with such sites for therapeutic use are the west Virginia springs, hot springs of Arkansas, Bedford’s springs of Pennsylvania, Safaga area of Egypt amongst others. The Nigerian environments which include her sedimentary and basements terrains are replete with potentials for climatotherapy, balneotherapy, hydrotherapy etc. from the Ikogosi, Zuwan Zafi Numan and the Yankari springs to the Niger delta formation waters and the caves and fountains that dots the entire landscape of Nigeria. These are novel areas for the application of alternative medicine using rich natural medicinal waters and lakes. This research is a review to enunciate and elucidates on the full potentials of Nigeria as a promising climatotherapy and other forms of spa therapy hub in Africa. There is a need for the utilization of these sites for climatotherapy and their documentations. Nigeria has the potentials from these sites to compete with the great dead-sea region of the middle-east and others. This review also discovered areas for empirical research on climatotherapy and spa therapy in Nigeria through collaborations and synergy between medical practitioners, dermatologists, climatologist, geologist and other experts who are interested in exploring the natural environments for alternative and sustainable therapies.

From Micro- to Satellite Gravity: Understanding the Earth

The main physical principle of gravity method application is the difference in densities between the various geological, environmental, archaeological and other targets and host media. Gravity is one of the oldest geophysical methods and it is widely applied for knowledge of subsurface and deep Earth’s domains. The present review displays multiscale examples of gravity field examination: from very detailed (delineation of karst terranes and archaeological targets) to regional investigations (development of 3D physical-geological models and satellite data examination of giant regions). Geographically the examined areas include the South Caucasus, the Dead Sea region, the Eastern Mediterranean and the Arabian-African region. Diverse methodologies of the gravity data processing, qualitative and quantitative interpretation, and results of 3D gravity field modeling are shown. It is demonstrated that integration of gravity field analysis with other geophysical methods (magnetic, paleomagnetic, thermal, seismic, etc.) significantly increases accuracy and reliability of developed physical-geological models. The further ways of evaluation of gravity data analysis are considered.

Using Combined Close-Range Active and Passive- Remote Sensing Methods to Detect Sinkholes

In the Dead Sea region of Israel, sinkholes collapse can be observed easily due to the large number of sites. The continuous decrease in Dead Sea level over the last 30 years, caused a substantial increases the sinkhole activity (more than 3,000 sinkholes upper layer collapse). Sinkholes of up to 50 m diameter are found to be clustered in sites with variable characteristics. In this research, we have developed methods for prediction of sinkholes appearance by using mapping and monitoring methods based on active and passive remote-sensing means. These methods are based on measurements from several instruments including field spectrometry, geophysical ground-penetration radar (GPR) and a frequency domain electromagnetic (FDEM) instrument. Field spectrometry was used to compare the spectral signatures of soil samples collected near progressing sinkholes and those taken in regions with no visible occurrence of sinkholes. Active remote sensing showed higher electrical conductivity and soil moisture in the former regions. Measurements were taken at different time points to monitor the progress of an embryonic sinkhole. The research steps included (i) review of previous published literature, (ii) mapping of regions with an abundance of sinkholes in various stages, and areas that are vulnerable to them, (iii) data analysis and development of warning indicators, accessible information to the scientific community. The result derived from this research indicates the possibility to build a pre-warning tool to detect the formation of sinkholes.

Apple of Sodom (<em>Calatropis procera</em>) Callus Extract, a Novel Skincare Active and Its Biological Activity in Skin Models When Combined with Dead Sea Water

Background: Calotropis procera (C. procera), is an authentic plant naturally grown in the flora of Dead Sea region. Despite its toxicity, C. procera presents healing properties. However, it has not been implemented yet in cosmetics as an active ingredient. Objective: The biological effects of C. procera callus extract on skin were elucidated solely and in combination with Dead Sea water (DSW). Methods: The capability of C. procera extract to protect against skin inflammation and irritation was tested on ex vivo human skin organ culture by LPS and SDS addition respectively. Viability and cytokine secretion were evaluated. The combination of C. procera extract with Dead Sea water was tested on full thickness skin equivalents. Gene expression and relevant biochemical markers for glycolysis, hypoxia and extracellular matrix balance were tested. Results: C. procera extract exhibits a protective biological activity against skin irritation and inflammation at the biochemical level. Furthermore, a combination of C. procera extract and DSW demonstrates a potential contribution for skin wellbeing via enhance energy production, resistance to hypoxia and extracellular matrix balance. Conclusions: Topical application of C. procera callus extract might support skin balance and wellbeing at the molecular level. Hence, it is recommended for new cosmetic formulae as standalone or in combination with Dead Sea water, in the effort to achieve anti-aging bio-activity that is working beyond skin aging symptoms, especially via skin calming effects and skin energy enhancement.

Millennial multi-proxy reconstruction of oasis dynamics in Jordan, by the Dead Sea

Vegetation reconstructions in the Dead Sea region based on sediment records are potentially biased, because the vast majority of them derive from the western side of the sea, and only focus on large areas and time spans, while little is known about extra-local (< 1,000 m radius) to local (< 20 m radius) changes. To fill this gap, we compared a vegetation survey with modern pollen assemblages from the “Palm Terrace” oasis ca. 300 m b.s.l. (below sea level), at the eastern edge of the Dead Sea. This revealed how the oasis vegetation is reflected in pollen assemblages. In addition, two sediment cores were collected from the centre and the edge of a mire at the oasis to reconstruct past vegetation dynamics. We analysed sedimentary pollen and microscopic charcoal, as well as the sediment chemistry by X-ray fluorescence (XRF) and conductivity, focusing on the past ~ 1,000 years. Pollen results suggest that mesophilous Phoenix dactylifera (date palm) stands and wetland vegetation expanded there around ad 1300–1500 and 1700–1900. During the past ca. 100 years, drought-adapted Chenopodiaceae gained ground, partly replacing the palms. Results from elemental analysis, especially of elements such as chlorine, provide evidence of enhanced evaporative salinization. Increasing desertification and the associated decline of mesophilous date palm stands during the past ca. 50 years is probably related to a decrease in annual precipitation and also corresponds to decreasing water levels in the Dead Sea. These have mainly been caused by increasing extraction of fresh water from tributaries and wells, mainly for local agriculture and industry. In the future, with hotter and drier conditions as well as increased use of water, oasis vegetation along the Dead Sea might be at further risk of contraction or even extinction.

Holocene vegetation history of the southern Levant based on a pollen record from Lake Kinneret (Sea of Galilee), Israel

Lake Kinneret, also known as the Sea of Galilee and Lake Tiberias, is located in the northeast of Israel. At a lake level of 211 m b.s.l. (below mean sea level), the central basin is 43 m deep. The maximum length of the lake is 21 km (N–S) and its maximum width is 12 km (W–E). Lake Kinneret’s surface area is 166 km2. A new 17.8 m long sedimentary core was drilled in 2010. Here, we present the entire palynological record from it, which covers the last ~ 9,000 years. Special emphasis is given to the natural and human-influenced vegetation history of Galilee in comparison to that of the more southerly Dead Sea region. Significant signs of human impact are the first Olea (olive) increase during the beginning of the Chalcolithic period between 7,000 and 6,500 years ago, as well as the prominent Olea phase during the Hellenistic/Roman/Byzantine period between 2,300 and 1,500 years ago. Mediterranean macchia and bathas scrub vegetation, as known in the area today, has developed in the southern Levant under human impact since the last ca. 1,500 years.

Convective rainfall in a dry climate: relations with synoptic systems and flash-flood generation in the Dead Sea region

Abstract. Spatiotemporal patterns of rainfall are important characteristics that influence runoff generation and flash-flood magnitude and require high-resolution measurements to be adequately represented. This need is further emphasized in arid climates, where rainfall is scarce and highly variable. In this study, 24 years of corrected and gauge-adjusted radar rainfall estimates are used to (i) identify the spatial structure and dynamics of convective rain cells in a dry climate region in the Eastern Mediterranean, (ii) to determine their climatology, and (iii) to understand their relation with the governing synoptic systems and with flash-flood generation. Rain cells are extracted using a segmentation method and a tracking algorithm, and are clustered into three synoptic patterns according to atmospheric variables from the ERA-Interim reanalysis. On average, the cells are about 90 km2 in size, move 13 m s−1 from west to east, and live for 18 min. The Cyprus low accounts for 30 % of the events, the low to the east of the study region for 44 %, and the Active Red Sea Trough for 26 %. The Active Red Sea Trough produces shorter rain events composed of rain cells with higher rain intensities, longer lifetime, smaller area, and lower velocities. The area of rain cells is positively correlated with topographic height. The number of cells is negatively correlated with the distance from the shoreline. Rain-cell intensity is negatively correlated with mean annual precipitation. Flash-flood-related events are dominated by rain cells of large size, low velocity, and long lifetime that move downstream with the main axis of the catchments. These results can be further used for stochastic simulations of convective rain storms and serve as input for hydrological models and for flash-flood nowcasting systems.

Dicroidium bandelii sp. nov. (corystospermalean foliage) from the Permian of Jordan

Dicroidium bandelii sp. nov. (Corystospermales) is described from the Um Irna Formation (Permian) of the Dead Sea Region, Jordan. The type and only specimen is a compressed frond fragment with cuticle. The new species is unique in showing pinnate frond architecture with elongate, lanceolate pinnae with a dense, near-parallel venation. In situ epifluorescence-microscopic analysis of the cuticle revealed evenly distributed, superficial stomata with differentiated lateral subsidiary cells typical of the genus. Epidermal and cuticular features readily distinguish D. bandelii from some superficially similar species of Ptilozamites or Thinnfeldia. Our report demonstrates that the diversity of Corystospermales in the unusual ‘mixed flora’ of the Permian palaeotropics is still greater than previously thought, and that the Um Irna Formation in particular holds a great potential for future palaeontological research.

Medical and Wellness Tourism Challenges in Dead Sea Spas from Tourists’ Point of View

This study aims at defining the medical tourism marketing obstacles and challenges facing Spas in the Dead Sea from the tourists’ point of view. The study sample consists of 86 Jordanian tourists and Arab Countries citizens. The researcher used the analytical descriptive method. Medical tourism marketing scale has been adopted and developed from the relevant previous studies. The study suggests that the medical tourism marketing facing the Spas in the Dead Sea Region from the tourists’ point of view are medium, and there is no statistically significant differences ascribed to gender and educational levels variables.

EVIDENCE OF WEALTH MANAGEMENT AND FINANCIAL PLANNING BY WOMEN IN 2nd CENTURY CE: CONTRACTS FROM DEAD SEA CAVES

This research offers a glimpse into how a few women in the 2nd century CE managed and protected their financial resources to aid in securing their financial future. Our focus is on contractual actions taken by women or their families of this period. We explore contracts from the Babatha and Salome Komaise Archives found in the Dead Sea region to provide insight into how women were able to plan and secure their financial future while at the same time supporting their husbands. These texts provide us with an awareness of the nature of Jewish life around the Dead Sea in ancient times and how the financial future for women might have been safeguarded.