Cross-layer Architecture Research Articles

Cross‐layer routing protocol for event‐driven M2M communication in IoT‐assisted Smart City Planning and Management: CWSN‐eSCPM

The robustness of wireless sensor networks (WSNs) has broadened the use of wireless communication systems for modern machine-to-machine (M2M) communication. Internet-of-Things (IoT) being one of the most explored technologies has gained wide attention due to low-cost WSN communication systems. IoT is one of the dominant technologies used in Smart City implementation demands better communication paradigm including mobility assisted transmission paradigms; however, native IEEE 802.15.4 standard does not have mobility provision that limits its use for real-time applications. On contrary, implementing mobility with classical WSN might impose significantly great topological changes and node or network condition variations which cannot be dealt with the traditional reactive routing approach. Incorporating node and/or network awareness with proactive network management can enable classical WSN to support mobility, which can be vital for IoT based Smart City Planning and Management (SCPM). With this motivation, in this study, a robust Cross-Layer Architecture based WSN Routing Protocol for Event-Driven M2M Communication in SCPM (CWSN-eSCPM) is developed. CWSN-eSCPM encompasses Proactive Node Management Strategy, Data-Centric Service Differentiation and Fair Resource Scheduling (DCSDFRS), Packet Velocity Estimation, Cumulative Congestion Estimation, Dynamic Link Assessment that enables optimal Best Forwarding Node selection for deadline sensitive and reliable data communication. CWSN-eSCPM applies dynamic link quality, cumulative congestion degree, and packet velocity of a node to enable optimal routing decision. DCSDFRS enables optimal resource provision to the real-time data while assuring maximum possible resource for non-real-time data that assures Quality of Service provision for event-driven critical communication in SCPM. Noticeably, CWSN-eSCPM protocol has been applied on top of IEEE 802.15.4 protocol standard, while preserving backward compatibility feature, it can be used for WSN assisted communication purposes. The authors' proposed protocol has performed better in terms of packet delivery ratio, packet loss ratio and deadline miss ratio for both real-time data as well as non-real-time data.

A PHY/MAC cross-layer design with transmit antenna selection and power adaptation for receiver blocking problem in dense VANETs

The medium access control (MAC) protocol of IEEE 802.11p dedicated to vehicular ad hoc networks (VANETs) employs carrier sense multiple access with collision avoidance (CSMA/CA) with distributed coordination function (DCF) which prohibits simultaneous transmissions in the same detection area in order to avoid possible interference and collision between neighboring vehicles. This prohibition results in temporary blocking of data reception, which reduces the average network throughput. To solve this problem, we propose a physical (PHY)/MAC cross-layer design based on transmit antenna selection (TAS) and transmit power adaptation (TPA). We consider spatial multiplexing zero-forcing Bell-labs layered space-time (ZF-VBLAST) over multiple-input and multiple-output (MIMO) time-varying flat fading channel to be implemented in vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V) communication. The cross-layer approach is implemented to get the maximal network throughput on the MAC layer by using the channel state information (CSI) obtained from the PHY layer, while the MIMO spatial multiplexing technique is used to increase the spectral efficiency. This design helps transmitters to select the best combination of transmitting antennas to maximize throughput and also to choose the adequate transmit power level to minimize neighbors' interference and collision. Also, this solution comes with a multi-user interference cancellation method that allows simultaneous transmissions as long as the sum of transmit antennas within the same radio range does not exceed the number of receive antennas. This paper evaluates the proposed cross-layer architecture by calculating the average network throughput per V2V links concerning different network parameters such as the number of vehicles and antennas. The simulation results show that this solution allows more vehicles to communicate simultaneously and thus significantly improves the average network throughput compared to 802.11p MAC standard, in particular for VANETs with high density.

An Energy-Efficient Message Scheduling Algorithm with Joint Routing Mechanism at Network Layer in Internet of Things Environment

The rapid procreation of internet of things (IoT) has invigorated massive research efforts with the purpose to save and use the lifetime of battery-powered sensor nodes which ultimately increases the overall network lifetime. The erroneous and faulty states of these networks are due to the high consumption of batteries in the processing and transmission of data by these nodes. This research focuses on message scheduling in an IoT environment where things/sensors are connected to make IoT groups, where each group has a designated broker whose duty is to delivers the messages coming from the group members to the ultimate sink of the sensed data. At broker a message scheduler operating to decides which message goes first. This algorithm proposed cross layer architecture at application level and network level. The residual energy of the node and its distance is considered as a parameter while selecting broker among all nodes in new proposed methods as compared to traditional LEACH. The proposed method provides better results in terms of number of live nodes, network life time, number of brokers and total dissipated energy while stabilizing the response time of the messages in addition to it.

A novel efficient cross layer-based bandwidth reservation mechanism for next generation wireless networks

In this paper, a cross-layer-based efficient bandwidth reservation mechanism (CLBRM) is proposed for next generation wireless networks. Application layer and network layer are involved in the design of the cross-layer architecture. Cross-layer architecture is used to reduce the delay. Shared database is used to implement the cross-layer architecture which allows to share the information among the application layer and the network layer. Bandwidth is reserved based on the type of requests and past history of the users. Four types of requests are used in this paper and priority is assigned among these requests. Two queues are maintained for last two priority requests and pre-emption of these requests is incorporated in order to serve the highly prioritised requests in a better way. The QoS parameters like delay, throughput, blocking probability, and dropping probability are used to evaluate the performance of the proposed mechanism. The performance of the proposed mechanism, CLBRM is compared with the data driven allocation (DDA) scheme (Fan et al., 2016) and proved to perform better.

Experimental Evaluation of the ETSI DCC Adaptive Approach and Related Algorithms

Decentralized Congestion Control (DCC) mechanisms have been a core part of protocol stacks for vehicular networks since their inception and standardization. The ETSI ITS-G5 protocol stack for vehicular communications considers the usage of DCC not only in the network or access layers, but also as a part of the cross-layer architecture that influences how often messages are generated and transmitted. ETSI DCC mechanisms have evolved from a reactive approach based on a finite state machine, to an adaptive approach that relies on a linear control algorithm. This linear control algorithm, called LIMERIC, is the basis of the mechanism used in the ETSI DCC Adaptive Approach. The behavior of this algorithm depends on a set of parameters. Different values for these parameters have been proposed in the literature, including those defined in the ETSI specification. A recent proposal is Dual- $\alpha $ , which chooses parameters to improve convergence and fairness when the algorithm has to react to fast changes in the use of the shared medium (transitory situations). This article evaluates, by means of simulations, the performance of the ETSI DCC Adaptive Approach and related algorithms, considering both steady state and transitory situations. Results show that a bad selection of parameters can make a DCC algorithm ineffective, that the ETSI DCC Adaptive algorithm performs well in steady state conditions, and that Dual- $\alpha $ performs as well in steady state conditions and outperforms the ETSI DCC Adaptive Approach in transitory scenarios.

Network security situation: From awareness to awareness-control

Network Security Situation Awareness (NSSA) is a security theory which can perceive the network threat from a global perspective. In this paper, we present a Cognitive Awareness-Control Model (CACM) for NSSA. CACM adopts the cross-layer architecture and cognitive circle which can break through the interactive barrier between different network layers. Firstly, we propose a decision-level fusion method in which different weights are assigned for different data sources so that the fusion accuracy can be improved. Secondly, a hierarchical quantification approach is discussed which can avoid inferring the complex memberships among network components. Finally, a cognitive regulation mechanism is analysed in order to solve the issue of automatic control. The simulation experiments show that our model can perceive and regulate the threat situation effectively. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first discussion which utilizes cognitive awareness-control to solve the regulation problem of NSSA.

A Cross-Layer Design for a Multihop, Self-Healing, and Self-Forming Tactical Network

In mission and time critical applications, bandwidth and delay optimizations are the key goals of communication systems. This paper presents a cross-layer framework design that reduces the call setup time, provides collision-free communication, and reuses the empty slots of Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) protocol which otherwise causes low throughput and large delay. As number of communicating nodes in tactical networks is small as compared to commercial mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs), classical TDMA will yield huge number of empty slots and any Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Detection (CSMA/CD) technique may cause more delay in some critical scenarios. Proposed methodology gives a Cross-Layer Architecture for Network (NET) Layer and Medium Access Control (MAC) Layer. Our design provides bandwidth efficient, collision-free communication to Software-Defined Radios (SDRs) in self-forming and self-healing tactical networks with low call setup time and multihop routing. For this purpose TDMA as MAC layer protocol and Ad Hoc On Demand Distance Vector (AODV) as Network Layer Routing Protocol are used. Our slot allocation (SA) algorithm, Cross-Layer TDMA (CL-TDMA), consists of control phase where AODV control packets are exchanged and data transfer phase where transmission of data and voice occurs. All active radios in vicinity gather information about communicating nodes based on the exchange of control packets by SDRs. Our algorithm then uses this information to help all active SDRs find slot(s) that will be used for collision-free transmission. A number of experiments are performed to establish improved performance of the proposed technique compared to other established techniques and protocols.

Declarative Resilience

To protect multicores from soft-error perturbations, research has explored various resiliency schemes that provide high soft-error coverage. However, these schemes incur high performance and energy overheads. We observe that not all soft-error perturbations affect program correctness, and some soft-errors only affect program accuracy, i.e., the program completes with certain acceptable deviations from error free outcome. Thus, it is practical to improve processor efficiency by trading off resiliency overheads with program accuracy. This article proposes the idea of declarative resilience that selectively applies strong resiliency schemes for code regions that are crucial for program correctness (crucial code) and lightweight resiliency for code regions that are susceptible to program accuracy deviations as a result of soft-errors (non-crucial code). At the application level, crucial and non-crucial code is identified based on its impact on the program outcome. A cross-layer architecture enables efficient resilience along with holistic soft-error coverage. Only program accuracy is compromised in the worst-case scenario of a soft-error strike during non-crucial code execution. For a set of machine-learning and graph analytic benchmarks, declarative resilience reduces performance overhead over a state-of-the-art system that applies strong resiliency for all program code regions from ∼ 1.43× to ∼ 1.2×.

Cross layer-based modified virtual backoff algorithm for wireless sensor networks

For more than a decade, there is a tremendous improvement in the usage of wireless sensor networks in various applications. The network operation is guaranteed to be effective and fruitful with efficient MAC protocol. Hence, this paper proposes the cross layer-based virtual backoff algorithm (CLM-VBA). The cross layer architecture is designed in this paper which involves three layers: physical layer, MAC layer and network layer. The priority is given to the neighbouring nodes which are determined using the cross layer architecture. Two different counters are maintained to keep track of number of accesses and number of attempts along with sequence number. The delay sensitive applications are given preference when compared to the delay insensitive applications. Sleep mode is used for each node in order to conserve energy at each node. A buffer is maintained at each node in order to improve the performance of the system. The proposed algorithm CLM-VBA is compared with VBA, S-MAC and M-VBA in terms of delay, packet delivery ratio, energy consumption and number of collisions and proved to be better.

Cross layer architecture with integrated MIH in heterogeneous wireless networks

Progress in new radio technologies and raise in users’ demands are motivating the deployment of a wide array of wireless networks, ranging from Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN), to fifth generation (5G). These heterogeneous Radio Access Technologies (RATs) are expected to be integrated together to provide mobile users QoS guarantees. Heterogeneous Wireless Networks (HWNs) provide an opportunity for developers to design efficient framework to satisfy stringent QoS requirement. This integration of different networks results in performance degradation when handovers occur during a mobility event. As a result, the effective mobility management protocols are required to support ubiquitous network access by providing seamless handover. In IEEE 802.21 standard, the framework Media Independent Handover (MIH) is proposed to facilitate handover in heterogeneous networks with measurements and triggers from link layers. This article emphasizes in relationship between the MIH framework and different modules in the MAC layer. In order to guarantee the QoS for different service flows with diverse QoS requirements, we propose to design new cross-layer based designs architecture to provide a combined solution for vertical and horizontal handover based on IEEE 802.21 MIH. We propose new modules in different layers and new primitives to facilitate the communication. Conducted simulations demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed approaches. We evaluate the proposed architecture using a scheduling algorithm which improves system performance as shown by the results presented of a comparative analysis with the NSA (New Scheduling Algorithm) and EDF (Earliest Deadline First) schemes.

An Adaptive Cross-Layer Architecture to Optimize QoS Provisioning in MANET

<p>Mobile Ad Hoc Network (MANET) is a collection of mobile nodes, which dynamically form a temporary network, without using any infrastructure like wireless access points or base-stations. The provision of QoS guarantees is much more challenging in Mobile Ad hoc Networks. There are many interesting applications such as multimedia services, disaster recovery etc can be supported if Quality-of-Service (QoS) support can be provided for MANETs. But QoS provisioning in MANETs is a very challenging problem when compared to wired IP networks. This is because of unpredictable node mobility, wireless multi-hop communication, contention for wireless channel access, limited battery power and range of mobile devices as well as the absence of a central coordination authority. So, the design of an efficient and reliable routing scheme providing QoS support for such applications is a difficult task. In this paper we studied the challenges and approaches for QoS aware routing techniques. </p><p> </p>

Cross-Layer Optimization and Protocol Analysis for Cognitive Ad Hoc Communications

In the cognitive radio ad hoc networks (CRAHNs), the spectrum availability may change from time to time and hop by hop. Thereby, the performance analysis and optimization for CRAHNs become so intricate that pure divide-and-conquer strategies by layered principles strand. Focusing on the five-layer involved performance analysis of CRAHNs, we set up a cross-layer design framework mathematically and solve it through vertical decomposition approaches. After the convex relaxation, a partial Lagrangian formula, which captures network objective and constraints from the physical layer to application layer, is devised. Then, a cross-layer optimization scheme through a vertical decomposition method (COVD) is proposed, which leads to a novel cross-layer architecture. Through the dual decomposition and primal decomposition, the complex joint optimization problem is decoupled into three subproblems with control parameters flowing back and forth. Although COVD achieves the optimal solution for the joint optimization issue, it incurs high cost in terms of overhead and complexity. Furthermore, we propose a cross-layer optimization design by heuristic algorithm, which reduces the computation complexity by a step-by-step division approach. Finally, simulation results demonstrate the efficiency of the proposed schemes. Complexity analysis and violation of the current protocols are also provided.

Mobile Satellite Communication with Cross Layer Architecture

Background/Objectives: The objective is to develop algorithms for improving Quality of Service with minimum delay and higher throughput using intelligent networking with cross layer architecture. Methods/Statistical analysis: For Mobile satellite communication Low Earth Orbit (LEO) satellites are used. Mobile satellite networks using LEO satellites provides less delay and high bandwidth. The cross-layer design is the method used to allow optimized operation in the modern heterogeneous wireless environment. Findings: The throughput improves with speed of transmission of information with cross layer design compared to the existing OSI model. The packet ratio increases with increasing transmission rate in comparison with the existing model. The overall delay is minimized in the proposed system with increase in number of packets. Simulation developed establishes that better QOS can be obtained with minimum delay and improved throughput in MSC networks using intelligent networking with cross layer architecture. Application/Improvements: The various applications of mobile satellite communication includes TV broadcasting, digital processing and point to point communication. The throughput is improved by 30% with speed of transmission of information. Packet ratio increases by 20% with increasing transmission rate. The overall delay is reduced by 17% with the help of cross layer design which is the optimized level compared to the existing model.

Efficient image transfer over WSN using cross layer architecture

The wireless sensor networks (WSN) are a special type of ad-hoc networks which are used for an extensive range of real time applications like monitoring, surveillance, tracking, process control etc. The physical data viz. temperature, pressure, moisture etc. is transmitted within the network for further processing. Apart from physical data, direct images or video can also be transmitted in case the user wants to have a better idea of what is going on at the event site. But to transmit the images is in itself a challenging task considering the network load and congestion. The limited capabilities of the sensor nodes make it very difficult to transmit the images as they require substantial amount of overheads to be transmitted. Here a novel method is proposed which employs the cross layer technique through the various layers as it helps to achieve efficient transfer of images across the network.

Cross Layer Architecture for Maintaining QoS in Multimedia Applications

Background/Objectives: Multimedia Applications on Mobile Ad hoc Networks (MANETs) are gaining immense popularity recently due to their necessity in latest environments. Hence, multimedia applications like video streaming, video conferencing and environment monitoring must be made possible in real-time in Mobile Ad hoc Networks. Mobility of nodes, life of battery, changes in topology and protocols affect the performance of MANET. Hence providing good Quality of Service (QoS) for multimedia applications in MANET is a challenge. Methods/Statistical Analysis: The RED algorithm with video precedence called as SiViRED (Significant Video Information Random Early Detection) - AQM in the Network layer that provides service differentiation based on the pre-assigned service classes and video packet drop priority specified in packet header. This will reduce congestion and decrease delay and jitter when compared to conventional methods. Findings: Proposed a novel technique that uses a cross layer architecture in which information from application layer is used with UDPLite in Transport layer and Active Queue Management (AQM) with SiViRED in Network Layer with modified dynamic mapping in MAC layer that guarantees 14% increase in Peak Signal to Noise Ratio (PSR) and 40% decrease in delay compared to conventional methods. Application/Improvements: Developed a cross layer technique that improves the end-to-end performance of multimedia services over Mobile Ad hoc Networks.

A quality of experience-aware cross-layer architecture for optimizing video streaming services

The popularity of the video services on the Internet has evolved various mechanisms that target the Quality of Experience (QoE) optimization of video traffic. The video quality has been enhanced through adapting the sending bitrates. However, rate adaptation alone is not sufficient for maintaining a good video QoE when congestion occurs. This paper presents a cross-layer architecture for video streaming that is QoE-aware. It combines adaptation capabilities of video applications and QoE-aware admission control to optimize the trade-off relationship between QoE and the number of admitted sessions. Simulation results showed the efficiency of the proposed architecture in terms of QoE and number of sessions compared to two other architectures (adaptive architecture and non-adaptive architecture).

Joint QoS provisioning and congestion control for multi-hop wireless networks

The capability of quality-of-service (QoS) provisioning is of particular importance for multi-hop wireless networks when the real-time applications boost in current days. The scheduling and delivery of data packets in a deficient method may probably cause network congestion, which will in turn decrease the capability of QoS provisioning in the network. To this end, we propose a joint QoS provisioning and congestion control scheme for multi-hop wireless network in this paper based on our previous works of Differentiated Queueing Service (DQS) and Semi-TCP, which provide per-packet granular QoS and carry out efficient hop-by-hop congestion control, respectively. While DQS and Semi-TCP are studied separately, we investigate the arising issues in the joint scheme and propose possible solutions accordingly, including a fast estimation of the latest departure time, a method to handle overdue packets, and an adaptive ACK scheme, as well as the design of a shared database cross-layer architecture for the implementation in the protocol stack. Simulation results show that our proposal improves the network performance in terms of goodput, delivery ratio, and end-to-end delay significantly, particularly in the scenario of mobile users. Our discussion and simulation results both indicate that the proposed joint scheme is flexible and adaptive to the dynamic multi-hop wireless network environment.

Design and simulation of a collision notification application with geocast routing for car-to-car communications

Car-to-X Communications are envisioned to improve road safety, traffic efficiency, and information services through short-range and real-time systems. The enabling applications have varied requirements such as low latency, specific forwarding patterns, and reliable data exchange between vehicles and infrastructure. Hence, a cross-layer architecture for vehicular applications should be defined according to the goals of the implementation, so as to consider proper routing and dissemination mechanisms, communication protocols, and the application’s design and operation. In this context, we propose the characterization of the upper layers of a safety-oriented Car-to-Car application. We propose a cross-layer application/network layer design for a Post Collision Notification (PCN) application, and by means of a coupled simulation model that combines the communication network with vehicular traffic flow, we assess the performance of the application design. Three main results can be derived from our work. First, the selected geocast protocol (DRG) shows to be an accurate protocol for safety applications and it may be a scalable routing mechanism for other applications. Second, that DRG is effective even for larger urban areas. And third, there is a reduction of acceleration and speed of the closest vehicles to the incident zone, which is a positive impact of the PCN application on the traffic flow. Consequently, the proposed cross-layer architecture and the implementation of geocast routing has shown a suitable support and good performance for safety applications, and could be extended to other application on the Car-to-X domain.

QoE-oriented resource allocation for multiuser-multiservice femtocell networks

The pursuit of high data rate and assurance of quality of experience (QoE) for end users represent the main goals of future wireless communication systems. By introducing MOS (Mean Opinion Score) based assessment models for different types of applications, this paper proposed novel QoE-oriented radio resource allocation (RRA) algorithms for multiuser-multiservice femtocell networks. An optimal QoE-oriented RRA strategy is first analyzed using time-sharing method which is applicable to best effort applications. RRA algorithms based on the cross-layer architecture are then proposed for all types of applications by considering parameters extracted from different layers of networking protocols. In the proposed algorithms, a priority mechanism is employed to ensure fairness. Simulation results show that the proposed algorithms can significantly improve the overall perceived quality from the users' perspective in comparison with traditional Quality of Service (QoS) oriented algorithms.

A Comparative Review of Vertical Handover Decision-Making Mechanisms in Heterogeneous Wireless Networks

Background/Objectives: Heterogeneous wireless networks are converging towards an all-IP network as part of the socalled next-generation network. In this paradigm, different access technologies need to be interconnected; thus, vertical handovers or vertical handoffs are necessary for seamless mobility. In this paper, we prepare a review of existing vertical handover decision-making mechanisms that aim to provide ubiquitous connectivity to mobile users. Methods/Statistical Analysis: To offer a systematic comparison, we categorize these vertical handover mechanisms based on TCP/IP layers. Subsequently, we evaluate several vertical handover decision-making mechanisms in the literature and compare them according to their advantages and limitations. Results/Findings: The paper compares the algorithms based on the network selection methods, flexibility and complexity of the technologies used. We find that the deployment of crosslayer architecture as a handover trigger and then performs handover accordingly with multi-path transmission can reduce packet losses around the handover. Conclusion/Application: The cross layer design approach seems to be a best solution for attaining seamless service continuity in order to facilitate seamless connectivity.