Creditworthiness Of Borrowers Research Articles

ДОСЛІДЖЕННЯ КЛЮЧОВИХ ЕЛЕМЕНТІВ ПРОЦЕСУ ФОРМУВАННЯ ТА РЕАЛІЗАЦІЇ КРЕДИТОСПРОМОЖНОСТІ ПОЗИЧАЛЬНИКІВ БАНКУ

The article considers issues related to the analysis of approaches to assessing the creditworthiness of bank borrowers. The article analyses various views of scientists and allocates main components of the concept of "creditworthiness", which comprehensively reveal the content of the concept and its main characteristics, both in relation to individuals and legal entities. The article offers a structure of assessment of creditworthiness of clients on the basis of the world and domestic practice, which includes two components: criteria of creditworthiness of a client and methods of assessment of creditworthiness of a client. Based on a comparative analysis of the main 10 foreign models for assessing the creditworthiness of borrowers, it is concluded that the indicators of "borrower's reputation" and "ability to repay the loan" are present in a larger number of models. The article considers foreign and domestic methods of assessing the borrower's creditworthiness and concludes that they have both common and distinctive features, but there is no single ideal method among them that would be suitable for a larger number of banking institutions. It is shown that there is a need to select instruments that will reflect the risks of potential losses. By determining the optimal system for assessing the borrower's creditworthiness, the bank reduces the risks of loan default and, in the future, bankruptcy of the institution. It is determined that the methods used in the practice of domestic banks generally assess financial indicators, but there is a gap in the use of qualitative characteristics in assessing the borrower's activities that do not have a quantitative expression, which are considered in detail in foreign methods for assessing the creditworthiness of a supplier. To make such an assessment, banking institutions need to pay attention to the analysis of the external environment, which will help in determining credit risks. It is the combination of qualitative and quantitative indicators that will help banks conduct a comprehensive multifactorial analysis and minimise credit risk. Therefore, based on the recommendations of the National Bank of Ukraine, each banking institution should choose an acceptable methodology or system for analysing and assessing creditworthiness in order to ensure the correctness of this assessment. It is concluded that there is currently no single methodology for assessing the creditworthiness of borrowers.

Emprical study of analysis and assessment of credit credibility of borrowers of commercial banks

This article identifies typical problems of providing analysis and assessing the creditworthiness of borrowers of commercial banks focused on modernizing and updating their production base. On the example of commercial banks of Uzbekistan, a phased development of a special methodology is considered, the use of which will solve the identified problems. The implementation of this methodology is designed to provide analysis and assessment of the creditworthiness of borrowers of commercial banks and, in general, with a focus on achieving the criteria values of key performance indicators.

Capitalism and Distributive Justice: Musings of a Mormon Economist

Capitalism and Distributive Justice: Musings of a Mormon Economist

Дослідження скорингової моделі для кредитопозичальників банку

In the paper we investigate scoring models as a tool for credit risk management, their importance, types, features and applications. We consider the history of scoring models and the development of the modern concepts of creditworthiness and scoring, examine scoring types and their features, methods (logistic regression, decision trees, linear programming, decision trees, and others), strengths and weaknesses of each considered method and stages of building scoring models; we stress the importance of scoring cards for building scoring models, indicate the main quantitative and qualitative features, their classification used for and describe the procedure of creating scoring cards. In the paper we consider the factors needed to be considered for more effective scoring model building process; we indicate the main formulas used to assess the creditworthiness of borrowers and improve the accuracy of scoring models, including Population Stability Index (PSI), R-Square Coefficient, Kolmogorov-Smirnov Coefficient, GINI Coefficient, and others; the practical application of scoring models in banks of Ukraine and their steps after applying scoring models are described on the example of a typical borrower.

The Evaluation of Creditworthiness of Trade and Enterprises of Service Using the Method Based on Fuzzy Logic

This article considered the problem of determining the creditworthiness of an enterprise operating in the field of trade and services. The assessment of the creditworthiness of borrowers, particularly small businesses, needs to be more careful: the level of development of small enterprises and their specific activities must be considered, as well as the uncertainty in obtaining any financial result. A method for assessing the creditworthiness of enterprises (trade and services) is proposed, based on the use of the mathematical apparatus of the theory of fuzzy sets. This article analyzes the indicators of industry and regional specifics, indicators of the activity of a small enterprise, and financial and economic indicators typical for the service sector and trade. The rules on the basis of which decisions are made are formed in the form of logical formulas containing parameters. In its most general form, one parameter is predicted, called the creditworthiness index, which varies from 0 to 1 and has a natural interpretation. On the basis of the proposed method, examples of calculating the assessment of the creditworthiness of enterprises operating in the field of trade and services are given. The proposed scientific approach can be used as a basis for creating expert decision support systems for lending to small businesses.

Safaricom Limited’s Mobile Money Services and Access to Trade Credit by Microenterprises in Nairobi City County Kenya

The purpose of this study was to determine the impact of mobile money services on access to trade credit by microenterprises in Kamukunji market, Nairobi City County, Kenya. The specific objectives of the study were; to assess whether digital payment-buy goods application (till number), saving and loan product (mshwari), mpesa for business application, pochi la biashara application have influence on access to trade credit by microenterprises in Kamukunji market. The study was guided by; Technology Acceptance theory, Unified Theory of Acceptance and use of technology, Diffusion innovation Theory and Technology, organization and Environment theory. The study employed a descriptive research approach and targeted 4,080 registered microenterprises in Kamukunji Market, Nairobi City County as per the City County Business Register of 2021. The sample size of the study was 351 microenterprises. A self-administered questionnaire was employed for the study's primary data. Data analysis was aided by SPSS using both descriptive statistics and inferential statistics. The results were displayed through tables and charts. The findings demonstrated that, savings and loan service, digital payment service, mpesa for business and pochi la biashara jointly explained 82 percent of the variation in access to trade credit among businesses in Kamukunji market. The study also established positive and significant relationship between all the independent variables and access to trade credit among businesses in Kamukunji market. The study concludes that Safaricom Ltd mobile money services have significant effect on access to trade credit by microenterprises in Kamukunji market, Nairobi City County Kenya. The study thus recommends that businesses in Kamukunji County and other microenterprises in other counties should strive to embrace Safaricom Ltd mobile money services such as savings and loan service, digital payment, mpesa for business, pochi la biashara since they enhance access to trade credit for the businesses. There is need to do further studies in area related to cost of accessing trade credit under the fintech firms and huge data available for assessing creditworthiness of borrowers. Keywords: Mobile Money Services, Savings and loan, Digital payment, Mpesa for business, Pochi la biashara.

The more the better? Information sharing and credit risk

Estimating correctly the borrower credit risks is the task of particular –and growing- importance for the banks all around the globe. Formal information sharing mechanisms are aimed to reduce information asymmetry in the credit markets and to enhance the precision of those estimates. In the academic literature, however, the answer to the question of whether more detailed borrower information accumulated and shared by credit bureaus and credit registries is always associated with higher quality of bank credit portfolios and lower credit risks is not completely unambiguous. More credit information disclosed by information intermediaries tend to result into the weaker disciplinary effect of credit history, which means higher credit risks. At the same time, the accuracy of assessing the creditworthiness of borrowers grows due to an increase in the predictive power of scoring models, which leads to a reduction in credit risk. In this paper we make a first attempt to examine the nonlinearity of this effect. We study the relationship between the depth of the credit information disclosure and the stability of the banking sector in terms of credit risks. Based on data on more than 90 countries for 2004–2020, we show that the relationship between disclosure and credit risk is non-linear: we observe the lowest levels of credit risk at minimum and maximum levels of disclosure depth. We analyze the influence of the country institutional quality and financial development on the nature of the relationship. We show that credit risks decrease with increasing depth of disclosure by credit bureaus and credit registers in in a high-quality institutional environment and in well-developed financial markets.

Buffer Model Determination of Systemic Strategic Risks for Borrowers in Force Majeure Circumstances

This study substantiates the concept of systemic strategic risks for borrowers and buffers systemic strategic risk in force majeure to the analyze the credit risk of banks. The authors studied the existing approaches used to assess the creditworthiness of borrowers and the credit risk of banks. The factors that influence the level of credit risk of borrowers are also identified. Quantitative and qualitative parameters of a borrower's creditworthiness, used in banking risk management, are also determined. An economic and mathematical model is proposed to determine the systemic strategic risk buffer for borrowers in force majeure circumstances. It is proposed that technology should be used to create a systemic strategic risk buffer for borrowers for hedging in force majeure circumstances as a monetary policy tool and include Basel III in the requirements of the banking agreement.

Credible risk: private credit bureaus and the work of loan officers in West Africa

AbstractIn 2015, the Central Bank of West African States selected a private credit bureau to build a digital platform to collect and analyse financial data across the eight-country West African Economic and Monetary Union, including the activities of credit cooperatives and microfinance agencies that serve many West African borrowers. The credit-reporting platform promises to produce new and valuable knowledge about borrowers’ creditworthiness and risk. But valuable in what ways and for whom? Private credit bureaus rely on vast arrays of personal and financial data in order to produce credit reports and consumer credit scores that claim to represent the creditworthiness of individual borrowers. Cooperative loan officers, instead, understand creditworthiness to be highly variable and rely on relational metrics in order to determine risk as well as carefully overseeing existing loans to ensure their timely repayment. Based on ethnographic fieldwork with loan officers at a small-scale credit cooperative in Lomé, Togo, this article examines how the impending arrival of a private credit bureau and new credit-reporting technologies highlights the distinction between the ways in which credit bureaus and loan officers understand the nature of financial risk, as well as the centrality of loan officers and their management of borrower debt in sustaining the field of small-scale lending in Togo.

A multi-country study of factors and threshold values affecting sovereign debt-taking behavior

PurposeThis manuscript reports evidence on how debt-taking decisions of top management in a multi-country setting do affect credit rating scores assigned by credit rating agencies (CRAs) as global monitors of creditworthiness of borrowers. This aspect has been long ignored by researchers in the literature. The purpose of this paper is twofold. A test model is specified first using theories to connect debt-taking behavior to credit rating scores. Once that model helps to identify a number of statistically significant factors, the next step helps to identify threshold values at which the variables driving debt-taking behavior would worsen the credit rating scores as turning points of the thresholds.Design/methodology/approachThe study identifies factors driving creditworthiness scores due to debt-taking behavior of countries and develops a correct research design to identify a model that explains (1) credit rating scores and the factors driving the scores and runs (2) panel-type regressions to test model fit. Having found factors driving debt-taking behavior by observed units, the next step identifies threshold values of factors at which point further debt-taking is likely to worsen credit rating risk of the observed units. This is a robustness test of the methodology used. The observed units are 20 countries with data series across 14 years.FindingsFirst, new findings suggest there are about six major factors associated with debt-taking behavior and credit rating changes. Second, the model developed in this study is able to account for substantial variability while the identified factors are statistically significant within the normal p-values for acceptance of hypotheses. Finally, the threshold values of factors identified are likely to be useful for managerial decisions to judge the levels at which further debt-taking would worsen the credit rating scores of the observed units.Research limitations/implicationsThe observed units are from 20 countries over 14 years of annual data available on credit rating scores (privately obtained from Standard and Poor [S&P]). The sample represents major economies but did not include emerging countries. In that regard, it will be worthwhile to explore the debt-taking behavior of emerging economies in a future study using the methodology verified in this study.Practical implicationsThe findings help add few useful guidelines for top management decisions. (1) There are actually factors that are associated with debt-taking behavior, so the authors now know these factors as guides for managerial actions. (2) The authors are free to state that the credit rating changes occur on objective changes in the factors found as significantly related to the debt-taking behavior. (3) The threshold values of key factors are known, so top management could use these threshold values of named factors to monitor if a debt-taking decision is going to push the credit rating to a worse score.Social implicationsThere are society-wide implications. Knowing that the world's debt level is high at US$2.2 for each gross domestic product (GDP) dollar across almost 200 countries, any knowledge on what factors help drive creditworthiness scores, thus credit riskiness, is revealed in this paper. Knowing those factors and also knowing the turning points of the factors – the threshold values – likely to worsen creditworthiness scores is a powerful tool for controlling excessive debt-taking by an observation unit included in this study (The dataset in this research can also be used to see inter-temporal movement on debt-taking in a future study).Originality/valueIn the authors' view, there are many studies on debt-taking behavior. But none has connected debt-taking on how (1) named factors are observable to management that affect credit rating changes and (2) if a factor affects creditworthiness, at which point of the factor value, the creditworthiness will flip to worsen the score. These aspects are seldom found in the literature. Hence, the paper is original with practical value at the global level.

MODERN METHODS FOR EVALUATING THE CREDITWORTHINESS OF BANK’S BORROWERS-LEGAL ENTITIES OF UKRAINE

At the present stage of development of financial and economic relations, lending is one of the most popular sources of covering the lack of financial resources necessary, in particular, to start the activity of an economic entity, expand production, eliminate the liquidity gap, etc. At the same time, enterprises operate in a changing environment, under the influence of permanent, as well as unpredictable risks and threats. Thus, intending to get a loan from a bank, a legal entity cannot always guarantee their timely return in full. In a crisis, legal entities often have significant losses, and therefore take loans to pay current liabilities. When providing loans to economic entities, banking institutions must be sure of their return. For this purpose, the creditworthiness of the borrower-legal entity is assessed, which ensures minimization of the risk of non-repayment of the bank’s loan funds. The article discusses modern models for assessing the creditworthiness of a borrower, as well as their characteristics and advantages and disadvantages. Taking into account the theoretical and methodological aspects of assessing the creditworthiness of borrowers makes it possible to reasonably propose ways to improve them so that banks can further minimize credit risk in their activities, and the banking system remains financially stable. The study of existing methods for assessing the creditworthiness of a borrower-legal entity led to the conclusion that in order to obtain accurate and objective assessments of the creditworthiness of an enterprise, complex methods should be used. At the same time, the methodological support for assessing the creditworthiness of a borrower-legal entity, used by domestic banking institutions, requires further improvement in terms of developing tools for assessing the qualitative characteristics of an enterprise’s creditworthiness. The article discusses the latest approaches to the methodology for assessing the creditworthiness of legal entities, such as credit rating, innovative credit scoring, including those based on the use of alternative data, based on the effective use of modern digital technologies: BigData, artificial intelligence, machine learning.

A New Machine Learning Method for Bank Credit Risk Analysis

We present in this article a new approach to predict the creditworthiness of borrowers that we call “Method of separating the learning set into two regions”. The goal of this approach is to build two regions from a training set. Thus, to predict the solvency of borrowers, it suffices to identify which of the two regions has its characteristic vectors; if it does not correspond to any region, credit decision-making requires further analysis. To test our approach, a large set of real and recent credit data obtained from the UCI repository is used, we trained also on a real credit database of a Moroccan bank and the creditworthiness of borrowers is analyzed at using two performance measurement indicators such as classification accuracy and AUC of the ROC curve as a robustness measurement criterion. The proposed model was compared with three traditional machine learning algorithms: LR, RBF-NN and MLP-NN. The experimental results show the superiority of the proposed approach.

Retracted: Internal procedures of the risk‐oriented lending process in the bank

AbstractInformation about the financial condition of financial institutions is the basis for assessing the risk of their lending. In the conditions of economic instability, the validity and effectiveness of management decisions significantly depend on the quality of financial and analytical calculations. To take into account, the specifics of the activities of various types of financial institutions when assessing the risk of their lending, the author put forward a hypothesis about the advisability of clarifying the composition of indicators used to assess the creditworthiness of borrowers. The analysis of the creditworthiness of financial companies and credit unions has been carried out. It was found that, during 2020–2021, no financial institution had the highest creditworthiness; at the same time, financial companies were more capable of meeting loan obligations than credit unions. A system of quantitative and qualitative indicators has been formed using correlation and factor analysis to assess the risk of lending to the activities of financial companies and credit unions. Certain indicators are suitable for integral assessment, and, therefore, create the basis for improving the methodological approach to assessing the risk of lending to financial institutions.

Social capital, phone call activities and borrower default in mobile micro-lending

This study examines how the social capital of borrowers affects loan defaults in the burgeoning mobile micro-lending market. We analyze the individual-level transaction data provided by one of the world's largest mobile lending platforms. Focusing on identifying behavior-based predictors of financial transactions, we propose that mobile phone calling activities constitute a valuable measure of social capital. Drawing on the theoretical foundation of social capital theory, we identify and study two types of calling activities: incoming calls and outgoing calls, strong ties and weak ties. Our analysis shows that the more incoming calls a borrower usually receives, the less likely he or she is to default on a loan. However, the more outgoing calls a borrower makes, the more likely default will occur. We further find that calling activities associated with stronger social ties have greater predictive power for loan defaults than those associated with weaker ties. These findings demonstrate the relevance of phone call activities in consumers' financial decisions. They provide micro-lending companies with valuable alternatives for assessing borrower creditworthiness beyond “hard information”, such as credit scores and income, and further help them make more effective loan decisions.

A New Predictive Machine-learning Approach for Detecting Creditworthiness of Borrowers

We present in this paper a new approach for predicting creditworthiness of borrowers that we call “Method of splitting the learning set into two region”. The aim of this approach consists on the construction of two regions from a learning set, the first called "Solvency Region" that contains the feature vectors of the elements that have paid their financial obligations on time and the second one called "Non-Solvency Region", which contains the feature vectors of the elements that have defaulted in paying their debts. Therefore, to predict creditworthiness borrowers, it is sufficient to identify which of the two regions includes his feature vectors; if it doesn’t correspond to any region, the credit decision-making requires further analysis. To develop and test our predictive proposed approach, a large set of real and recent credit data obtained from the UCI repository is used, we trained also on a real credit database from a Moroccan bank and the creditworthiness of borrowers are analyzed using two performance measurement indicators such as Classification accuracy and the AUC of the ROC curve as a robustness measurement criteria. The proposed model was compared to three traditional machine-learning algorithms: LR, RBF-NN and the MLP-NN. The experimental results show the improved performance of our proposed predictive method for predicting creditworthiness of borrowers.

Financing low-carbon transport transition in the Philippines: Mapping financing sources, gaps and directionality of innovation

Successfully achieving a low-carbon transition in the transport sector requires an understanding of the lending logics of the financial institutions in order to identify the financing directionality and gaps. However, in the transportation literature, there is a lack of attention on the relationship between financing sources and the direction of innovation. The present study seeks to address this by mapping the flow of finance from financial institutions to transport projects. Our dataset consists of 9 transport projects included in the Philippines’ Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC). We consider different types of projects (rail development, bus rapid transit implementation, jeepney modernization) and various financial actors (multi-lateral banks, private and government banks). Through an analysis of loan portfolio composition and interview data, we uncover the underlying logics of each financial institution in lending to transport projects. Our findings suggest that the lending logics of many financial institutions is primarily driven by portfolio and borrower credit-worthiness considerations, and less by motivations concerning sustainability transition. As a result, with respect to the average, some transport projects are over-financed (e.g. rail development), while others – which have a high potential to accelerate decarbonization – are under-financed (e.g. jeepney modernization). All these have profound implications for the directionality of low-carbon transition. Deeper engagement of transition research with finance is a nascent field, and the current research contributes to the literature not only by presenting a comprehensive mapping of several financing sources and projects, but also of proposing three credit enhancement mechanisms to mobilize capital for under-financed projects.

Анализ кредитоспособности корпоративного заемщика: комплексный подход

The cancellation of regulatory relief due to the Covid-19 pandemic, which allowed banks to save on reserves for restructured loans, did not significantly affect the stability of the system in 2021. At the same time, there remains the probability of certain types of systemic risks, including credit risks. During the pandemic the Russian business debts increased by 14% and reached 62.6% of the countryʼs GDP, which significantly increased credit risks for banks. There is a high concentration of corporate liabilities in Russia - a great part of the debt falls on a small number of large borrowers who are serviced by large banks. It is found that reducing the credit risks and increasing the credit activity of market participants can be achieved both by methods of macroeconomic regulation and by improving the mechanism for analyzing the creditworthiness of corporate borrowers at the level of credit institutions. Measures to minimize credit risks are listed. The formula for the final calculation of the level of credit risk is given. The indicators are analyzed on the basis of the Russian Accounting Standards (RAS) and on the basis of the International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS), the values of debt burden indicators are considered. There is offered a model of such an analysis based on a mixed complex-individual model including an assessment of industry and structural indicators based on expert opinion, existing threats from competitors or the market, transparency of the borrower's activities, as well as the expertise of leading international rating agencies. The model allows predicting the future position of the borrower in the market, as well as taking into account the specifics of lending conditions.

Сельская ипотека: первые итоги, проблемы и способы повышения финансовой доступности для сельских жителей

Abstract. The purpose. Analysis of the results and problems of the implementation of the Rural Mortgage Program, as well as a scientific substantiation of the need for its improvement in order to increase the financial accessibility of mortgage loans for rural residents and improve housing conditions on the village. Methods. The theoretical and methodological basis of the study was the scientific works of domestic and foreign scientists on issues of preferential mortgage lending, financial inclusion and the development of rural territories. The study was carried out using general scientific methods for analyzing and synthesis, induction and deduction, statistical and economic method. Results. An analysis of the implementation of preferential mortgage lending under the Rural Mortgage Program, which informed the high demand for this program among the population. A high concentration (more than 75%) issued preferential mortgage loans in three federal districts – Central, Volga and Siberian was revealed. It has been established that the level of approved applications of citizens on preferential loans is not high, the main reasons for the provision of a loan have become problems with purchased property, negative credit history or low creditworthiness of borrowers, due to the poverty of rural households. According to the data in 2020 in each third region of Russia, citizens who received a preferential rural mortgage more than rural residents, which confirms its low accessibility for the village. Scientific novelty. According to the results of scientific research on the basis of identified problems, the directions of the rural mortgage program were reasoned, taking into account the key factors of increasing the financial accessibility of mortgage loans for priority categories of rural population, young and large families, as well as the level of regional development of rural areas.

SCORING STRUCTURIZATION MODEL OF COMMERCIAL BANKS BORROWERS’ CREDITABILITY ASSESSMENT UNDER THE GLOBAL FINANCIAL CRISIS

Thу article reveals the essence of bank lending structuring. The borrower's creditworthiness was assessed on the example of JSC "STATE SAVINGS BANK OF UKRAINE” (JSC OSCHADBANK). The study scientifically substantiated the scoring model of information and analytical provision for commercial bank borrower creditworthiness assessment in the global financial crisis. It was proved that the results of commercial bank lending directly depend on the quality of the bank lending process structuring as well as of the legibility of the tasks for principal stages of the process and the responsibilities of employees in charge of credit operations conducting. Customers credit worthiness determination was analyzed as one of the stages of the lending process and the principal condition of lending relations since its reliability significantly affects both the results of specific loan agreements and the efficiency of lending activities in general. The accuracy of the assessment is also important for the borrower since it depends on the decision to grant a loan and its volume limit. The studies on the recommended method of the borrowers’ creditworthiness assessment have shown their effectiveness in its implementation in the scoring model of borrowers’ creditworthiness assessment. It has been scientifically substantiated that the scoring model makes it possible to assess the borrower's creditworthiness, assessing the lender's credit risks based on the calculation of quantitative indicators (economic creditworthiness) and qualitative characteristics (personal creditworthiness) of the borrower. Consequently, the application of this scoring model involves conferring the borrower points based on the analysis of special forms and questionnaires completed by the lender

ПРОБЛЕМИ РИНКУ КРЕДИТУВАННЯ УКРАЇНИ В УМОВАХ ВОЄННОГО СТАНУ

Before the start of russia's large-scale invasion the demand for loans in Ukraine was caused by: the improvement of the macroeconomic situation in the country, a decrease in interest rates and gov-ernment programs to support entrepreneurship and mortgage lending. The insolvency of debtors dur-ing the war led to an increase in the volume of overdue loans and, as a result, a deterioration in the quality of banks' loan portfolios.The article systematizes the problems of the lending market that arose due to the military ac-tions in Ukraine, determines the priority of the introduction of anti-crisis measures to satisfy both the interests of creditors and borrowers.We have identified a number of factors that have worsened the quality of banks' loan portfolios and the creditworthiness of borrowers who have issued loans in recent years. In the article were stud-ied the reasons for the increase in the cost of new loans and the decrease in demand for them. Measures of the loan market regulator to ease requirements for banks in the credit risk management system have been systematized. The content and priority of the introduction of anti-crisis measures to settle the interests of lenders and borrowers were determined, state programs and grants to support business lending for the recovery of Ukraine were analyzed.Іt was concluded that the banking system of Ukraine has enough liquid funds for lending, but the lending market is experiencing the painful consequences of the state of war: high risks associated with the war increased theprice of credit funds; the quality of banks' loan portfolios deteriorated due to the low solvency of borrowers, credit risk reduced the profitability of banking activities; the demand for new loans fell sharply due to the shutdown of certain businesses, disruption of logistics, migration of employees of business structures; part of the collateral for bank loans (including mortgages) has been destroyed and it is still not solved what the mechanism of compensation for losses should be for banks.