Covert Rehearsal Research Articles

Movement Retrieval from Long-Term Memory: Physical versus Mental Rehearsal

Despite references in the psychomotor literature regarding the use of rehearsal strategies in recovering movements from longer term memory, no significant difference between physical (overt) and mental (covert) rehearsal strategies for retrieving a complex dance movement over 30 min., 2 days, and 1 wk. were observed for 72 college women in beginning dance classes. Further, no rehearsal was as effective as either physical or mental rehearsal for retrieving dance movements for up to 1 wk. after original learning by these inexperienced dancers. The findings raise the possibility that other forms of retrieval than those already proposed are used to recover complex dance movements from longer term memory.

The emergence of the word length effect in young children: The effects of overt and covert rehearsal

The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of training 5‐year‐olds to carry out both overt and covert rehearsal in a serial order recall task. As the superior recall for short words versus long words in adults is attributed to the use of verbal rehearsal, it was hypothesized that young children who do not normally show these effects would do so when trained to rehearse. Both overt and covert rehearsal were found to be equally effective in producing a word length effect, and these results were taken as supportive of the view that such effects are due to verbal rehearsal. It was also concluded that when instructed to do so 5‐year‐olds can make effective use of inner speech in serial order recall tasks.

Effects of level of processing and rehearsal on frequency judgments.

The effects of attention during encoding and rehearsal after initial encoding on frequency estimates were investigated in three experiments. Varying the level of processing affected the linear increase in frequency estimates as a function of actual frequency, but varying processing after encoding with remember or forget cues had the greatest effects on the intercept of the function relating judged to actual frequency. Deeper levels of processing improved performance in a frequency discrimination task, whereas remember and forget cues had only very small effects on performance. Materials that are easy to rehearse were compared with materials that are difficult to rehearse in Experiment 2. The results were interpreted as evidence against a covert rehearsal explanation of slope effects in frequency estimation tasks because materials that are difficult to rehearse tended to produce larger interactions between remember versus forget cues and frequency than materials that are easier to rehearse. In Experiment 3, an arithmetic task that was performed during word encoding affected the slope of the function relating judged to actual frequency, but the same task performed immediately after word presentation had no effect on frequency estimates. It was concluded that frequency is not stored automatically because attention during the initial stages of encoding affects it; however, attention devoted to processing after initial encoding does not affect the rate with which subjective frequency increases with repetitions.

Effect of Coding Strategies on Movement Extent as a Function of Cognitive Style

Learners differ as to the manner in which they perceive, encode, and store information. The purpose of this study was to examine the efficacy of subjects' predetermined learning (cognitive) style on ability to replicate target locations in a task requiring extent of movement. Subjects were assessed as having one of three cognitive styles, verbal, visual, and tactual. They used three different coding strategies prior to reproducing three sets of three targets and a control (no coding) condition. One coding technique was designed to be compatible with the subject's cognitive style. Multiple regression analyses for absolute error indicated moderate to high prediction of performance using a covert rehearsal technique in a manner similar to each subject's perferred learning style for both immediate and delayed recall. However, predicting performance for the direction of error (CE) was relatively low.

Same-different reaction time to the sequential visual presentation of vowels and consonants

Subjects saw either two vowels (E and I) or two consonants (D and G) presented sequentially on a screen (ISI of either 250 or 2,000 msec) and pressed a key to indicate whether the letters were the same or different. As predicted, reactions were faster to vowel pairs than to consonant pairs. Results are explained in terms of (1) coding of letters in terms of their speech properties; (2) representation of vowel sounds but not consonant sounds in the covert rehearsal loop; (3) transfer of vowel sounds to the echoic store; and (4) faster comparison of those features represented in the echoic store.

Relaxation Covert Rehearsal for Adaptive Functioning in Fourth-Grade Children

In a sample of 162 fourth graders, 62 of the 70 most active and problematic—as identified by teacher ratings—were randomly assigned to relaxation/covert rehearsal, story listening, and waiting list groups. Children were evaluated before and after a 6-week treatment of 2 group sessions per week and again 4 months later, after the waiting list had also received relaxation/covert rehearsal training. Evaluations included teacher and parent ratings on the Abbreviated Behavior Scale–Form B and Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory; grades in mathematics, reading, spelling, and language arts; a spelling achievement test; and "blind" classroom observations and electromyographic measures. Little significant evidence was obtained for the efficacy of group relaxation/covert rehearsal, or story listening in improving adaptive functioning. Previous reports of more positive results with children's relaxation training may be spurious owing to the use of less rigorous controls.

Modification of pain through covert positive reinforcement.

This study investigated the effectiveness of covert positive reinforcement in modifying response to cold-pressor pain and in increasing the use of prescribed adaptive imagery. 80 women were randomly assigned to covert positive reinforcement, backward conditioning, covert rehearsal, and expectancy conditions. Covert positive reinforcement did not yield either greater pain tolerance and use of adaptive imagery or less subjective discomfort than the other conditions. Modification of pain was not associated with the use of adaptive imagery but was correlated with the clarity of imagery. 64% of the subjects reported using self-generated coping strategies. The results of this study contribute to the body of evidence which does not support the operant conceptualization of covert positive reinforcement.

力量情報の短期保持における内潜的リハーサルの効果と心的活動による反応の偏向

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of covert rehearsal and the characteristics of the response biasings by interpolated mental activities in- short-term retention of isometric force information. The dependent variables were the percent constant error (PCE) and the percent absolute error (PAE) made by 264 male undergraduate students who attempted to reproduce a criterion force of either 7 kg, 15 kg, or 23 kg during immediate (5 dec.) and delayed (30 sec.) recall tests. The order of administration of the recall tests was counterbalanced across subjects. The 30-sec retention intervals were filled with either covert rehearsal, overt backwards-counting, covert backwards-counting, or resting without rehearsal. The results are summarized as follows: 1) It was found that there was no forgetting over time when the covert rehearsal strategy was used during the retention interval. 2) The vividness scores of kinesthetic imagery during covert rehearsal significantly correlated with the PCE in delayed recall test. These findings suggest that the force information can be centrally processed and decays very little during a retention interval if covert rehearsal strategy is used. 3) The PCE in both criterion forces of 15kg and 23kg significantly shifted in the negative direction over time for the resting condition, while the PCE in both criterion forces of 7kg and 23kg was significantly shifted in the positive direction when the interval was filled with the overt counting. 4) The PCE in the covert backwards-counting condition was less positive than that in the overt counting condition, and was more positive than that in the resting condition. These findings appear to support a dual-process theory by Pepper and Herman involving decay and interference features so that they account for response biasing by interpolated mental activity in short-term memory of force information.

Evoked potential correlates of left hemisphere dominance in covert articulation.

Evoked Potentials (EPs) to a click stimulus were recorded at the temporal areas of both hemispheres of dextral subjects engaged in covert rehearsal of a verbal passage or in covert rehearsal of musical passages. A pattern of left hemisphere attenuation of the click EPs was observed in all subjects during speech rehearsal but not during music rehearsal. The implications of these findings for the issue of electroencephalographic localization of speech production mechanisms in the left hemisphere are discussed.

Covert Rehearsal and Motor Long-Term Memory

This was a preliminary study of the effects of covert rehearsal, i.e., mental practice, on retention of movement in motor long-term memory. Rehearsal has been recognized as one of the most important factors in experiments on human memory ( 1 ) . There have been many studies of rehearsal in motor short-term memory (2), however, most studies of motor long-term memory concerning the role of covert rehearsal have been atheoretical (3). If rehearsal is necessary for retention beyond the typical short-term memory period of a few minutes, it follows that preventing rehearsal should produce poorer retention of movement information than conditions in which rehearsal is allowed. In the present study 18 right-handed subjects participated in a study of a linear positioning task. In the first phase three movement lengths, 10, 15, 25 cm, were used. A movement length was assigned to one of three rehearsal conditions: immediate recall, recall after 20 sec. of rehearsal, recall after 20 sec. interpolated activity (backward counting by threes). Rehearsal intervals were counterbalanced between subjects, and subjects received both distance and location information cues. For each trial subjects moved the slide carriage from right to left until a stop was reached. Following the appropriate rehearsal interval the stop was removed and the subject attempted to reproduce the movement three times. This procedure was followed for all three rehearsal intervals. Following the completion of this phase subjects received a word-analogy test. After a 10-min. period subjects received a surprise recall test, in which they attempted to reproduce each movement three times in the same serial order as presented in the initial phase. Movement error was recorded in centimeters. Since the movement lengths were used simply to provide a repertoire of movements to remember, errors were collapsed over movement lengths. Errors were also collapsed over reproduction attempts within rehearsal condirions. Analysis of absolute error2 indicated there was no significant effect for rehearsal condirions in the initial phase. However, there was a significant effect for rehearsal in the second phase (F = 4.04, p < .05). The cell means were 4.5, 2.8, 4.9 cm for 0, 20, and 20 sec. filled, respectively. Subsequent analysis (Tukey HSD = 1.9) indicated a significant difference between 20 sec. filled and 20 sec. rehearsal but not between 0-sec. and 20-sec. rehearsal groups. The separate analysis was performed for each phase because recall in the first phase is sequential whereas recall in the second phase is serial. These findings provide preliminary evidence that covert rehearsal increases the retention of movement in motor long-term memory. The rehearsal condition (20 sec.) led to superlor retention of movement compared to the noor block-rehearsal conditions. The data suggest study of rehearsal in motor long-term memory is warranted.

力量情報の短期保持における象徴的コーディング方略と内潜的リハーサルの効果

力量情報の短期保持における象徴的コーディング方略と内潜的リハーサルの効果

Covert and overt rehearsal and homework practice in developing assertiveness.

Covert and overt rehearsal and homework practice in developing assertiveness.

The relative contributions of covert reinforcement and cognitive restructuring to test anxiety reduction

Tested the relative contributions of two possibly active test anxiety treatment components, covert reinforcement (response relevant) and cognitive restructuring. Thirty-nine Ss were assigned to a covert modeling group, a cognitive restructuring group, a combination group, or a waiting list control group. The covert modeling consisted of imagining (a) the feared situations; (b) handling the stress in a coping manner; and (c) feeling good for having coped. The cognitive restructuring group's scenes consisted of imagining (a) the feared situation; (b) saying a negative self-statement; and (c) replacing it with a positive coping statement. Results showed that the covert modeling group was somewhat more improved than the cognitive restructuring group. This result is interpreted as evidence that cognitive restructuring may work by the mechanisms of covert rehearsal and response relevant covert positive reinforcement. Further research directions are suggested.

Heart-Rate Changes during Covert Rehearsal and Response Execution

The phasic ardiac responses and reaction times (RT) of 27 normal adult males were examined during a fixed-foreperiod RT task involving three levels of difficulty of rehearsal, with subject instructed to respond to the reaction signal following one of three delay periods. The results indicated accelerative heart-rate changes corresponding to the requirements of the rehearsal task, regardless of the timing of the motor response. The magnitude of the decelerative component appeared to be primarily dependent on the stimulus detection and requirements of the response decision signalled by the stimuli. Preparation to make a motor response per se did not influence heart-rate deceleration significantly. Potential applications of the heart-rate measure as an independent physiological index of activities related to the processes of memory and attention were suggested.

MEDIATION OR PRODUCTION DEFICIENCY IN DISABLED READERS?

Deficiences in disabled readers' short-term memory processing were studied. A deficit in memory capacity versus susceptibility to interference was investigated by examining performance over trials. A mediation versus production deficiency in memory processing was examined by testing the effect of instructions for rehearsal on performance of average and disabled readers in Grades 2 and 5. Contrary to prior research, facilitative effects of rehearsal graders' memory was adversely affected by overt rehearsal. Requiring children to rehearse overtly at a set rate may account for the results. A second study examined effects of covert rehearsal on the memory of average and disabled readers in Grade 2 over trials. Facilitative effects of covert rehearsal were shown when data of children who spontaneously rehearsed were removed. A deficiency in production by second graders was supported. Disabled readers who did not rehearse were more susceptible to interference.

A comparison of three covert assertion training procedures

AbstractAssessed the effectiveness of covert modification procedures in an assertion training program (N = 52). At pretest, Ss chosen on the basis of high scores on an assertion questionnaire were compared to low scoring Ss in a behavioral role play test. Significant differences between these groups were obtained on behavioral ratings. After the pretest, the nonassertive Ss were assigned randomly to a no‐treatment control group or to one of three treatment groups that received covert assertion training procedures. One treatment group received a program that emphasized the generation of alternative responses, while a second group received training directed at restructuring hypothesized negative self‐statements. The third treatment group received a social skills treatment program that employed covert rehearsal procedures. All the treatment groups were superior to the control in behavioral ratings of assertiveness during the posttest in those situations that had been employed previously in treatment; two were superior in those that had not been used and thereby provided evidence of transfer of training. Results are discussed with regard to assessment issues in assertion training programs and the use of cognitively oriented procedures in producing behavioral changes.

Mediation or Production Deficiency in Disabled Readers?

Deficiences in disabled readers' short-term memory processing were studied. A deficit in memory capacity versus susceptibility to interference was investigated by examining performance over trials. A mediation versus production deficiency in memory processing was examined by testing the effect of instructions for rehearsal on performance of average and disabled readers in Grades 2 and 5. Contrary to prior research, facilitative effects of rehearsal graders' memory was adversely affected by overt rehearsal. Requiring children to rehearse overtly at a set rate may account for the results. A second study examined effects of covert rehearsal on the memory of average and disabled readers in Grade 2 over trials. Facilitative effects of covert rehearsal were shown when data of children who spontaneously rehearsed were removed. A deficiency in production by second graders was supported. Disabled readers who did not rehearse were more susceptible to interference.

Selective rehearsal and selective recall

The purpose of this experiment was to determine whether pleasant words are rehearsed more frequently than less pleasant words and whether this “selective rehearsal“ could account for “selective recall,” the superior recall of pleasant words in contrast with less pleasant words. English words varying in pleasantness were learned using a free recall paradigm. One group of 24 subjects performed the task using the overt rehearsal technique; they were instructed to say out loud the words they would normally rehearse silently. Another group of 24 subjects used standard covert rehearsal. The results showed that (1) pleasantness was related to rehearsal frequency, (2) rehearsal frequency was related to recall, and (3) pleasantness was related to recall in only one of the four conditions.

INTERPERSONAL SKILL TRAINING FOR SOCIAL WORKERS IN SMALL GROUPS

This study evaluates the effectiveness of a small-group training program aimed at teaching social workers those interpersonal skills necessary for effective practice. Participants were taught to deal with critical situations commonly encountered by professional social workers in their clinical practice. Modeling, overt and covert rehearsal, videotaped and verbal feedback, coaching, behavioral assignments, delegation of group leadership, and other small group procedures were utilized in the training program. Participants met in small groups offour to six members for 2-hour sessions each week over a period of 6 weeks. The results of the study indicated that, following training, the participants were significantly (p≤ .o1) more effective than the controls in dealing with both trained and untrained items on a behavior role-play test. Methodological limitations, implications for future research on small-group training of social workers, and training of group leaders are discussed.

An Examination of the Rule-Use Construct of the Frequency Theory of Verbal Discrimination Learning

Summary Sixty-six female and 18 male college students were employed in a study of the relative effect of instructional set and item familiarity on performance in a 20-word pair, verbal discrimination task. Results indicated performance was facilitated with a 2:1 frequency ratio of correct to incorrect items (p < .001), but the instructions and interaction effects were nonsignificant. The results were discussed in terms of overt and covert rehearsal of word pairs.