Conversion Technologies Research Articles

Upcycling lignocellulosic palm biomass via Black Soldier Fly Larvae (BSFL) composting incorporated with Ex-situ fermentation by Bacillus Subtilis

The growing demand of palm oil has caused expanding deforestation- one of the root causes for global warming. Drawn from the recent Conferences of the Parties (COP) 28, 39 % reduction in global carbon emission would need to be met by 2030 and this requires cooperation from all nations. Hence, the palm oil-producing nations could play their parts by upcycling palm waste biomass to promote sustainable palm oil production. Oil palm frond (OPF), a highly abundant biomass resulted from fruit pruning remains underutilized – mainly due to the undesirable biomass moisture level and low conversion technology readiness in the region. Composting OPF via Black Soldier Fly Larvae (BSFL) was proposed to overcome the technological barrier. However, OPF was not palatable for BSFL mainly being nutritionally deficient and highly lignocellulosic. Hence, ex-situ fermentation via Bacillus subtilis followed by blending with decanter cake (DC), nitrogenous palm waste was studied prior to BSFL composting. Results showed that treatment E (OPF:DC 3:7 wt) led to the highest BSFL weight gain (49 %) and biomass degradation (58 %) after 20 rearing days. The reared larvae consisted of 30 % and 22 % crude protein and lipid, respectively – making them an ideal insect meal. Overall, this research aims to give a preliminary overview of employing BSFL in composting highly recalcitrant palm waste biomass.

Effective methane decomposition using spark discharge assisted laser-induced plasma: An approach based on Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy

The widespread utilization of fossil fuels cause to significantly elevate greenhouse gas emissions. Consequently, the developments of the innovative methods are essential to convert methane into the green energy. Recently, significant effort is made to enhance the performance of the plasma-based conversion technologies. Here, the dissociation rate of methane into heavier hydrocarbon compounds are carefully determined by making use of a hybrid laser-induced plasma (LIP) and spark discharge (SD). Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy reveals a couple of characteristic peaks after laser triggering, whose intensities notably increase at higher applied voltages. The corresponding peaks indicate the formation of heavier compounds including sp and sp2 C–H stretching bonds. The findings elucidate that the methane decomposition rate notably elevates in favor of hybrid SD-LIP against that of traditional LIP. It is worth noting that the simultaneous ablative effect of the catalyst surface to remove the carbon soot by the successive laser shots could prevent the catalytic deactivation leading to the sustained performance.

Towards Sustainable Biomass Conversion Technologies: A Review of Mathematical Modeling Approaches

The sustainable utilization of biomass, particularly troublesome waste biomass, has become one of the pathways to meet the urgent demand for providing energy safety and environmental protection. The variety of biomass hinders the design of energy devices and systems, which must be highly efficient and reliable. Along with the technological developments in this field, broad works have been carried out on the mathematical modeling of the processes to support design and optimization for decreasing the environmental impact of energy systems. This paper aims to provide an extensive review of the various approaches proposed in the field of the mathematical modeling of the thermochemical conversion of biomass. The general focus is on pyrolysis and gasification, which are considered among the most beneficial methods for waste biomass utilization. The thermal and flow issues accompanying fuel conversion, with the basic governing equations and closing relationships, are presented with regard to the micro- (single particle) and macro-scale (multi-particle) problems, including different approaches (Eulerian, Lagrangian, and mixed). The data-driven techniques utilizing artificial neural networks and machine learning, gaining increasing interest as complementary to the traditional models, are also presented. The impact of the complexity of the physicochemical processes and the upscaling problem on the variations in the modeling approaches are discussed. The advantages and limitations of the proposed models are indicated. Potential options for further development in this area are outlined. The study shows that efforts towards obtaining reliable predictions of process characteristics while preserving reasonable computational efficiency result in a variety of modeling methods. These contribute to advancing environmentally conscious energy solutions in line with the global sustainability goals.

Special Issue on Conversational Information Seeking

In this article, we provide an overview of ACM TWEB’s Special Issue on Conversational Information Seeking. It highlights both research and practical applications in this field. The article also discusses the future potential of conversational information seeking technology.

Nitrogen, Fluorine, and Phosphorus Tri‐Doped Porous Carbon with High Electrical Conductivity as an Excellent Metal‐Free Electrocatalyst for Oxygen Reduction Reaction

AbstractToday's oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) depends on the precious metal Pt‐based catalysts, limiting the large commercialization of promising energy conversion technologies such as proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) and metal‐air batteries. Therefore, the rational design of low‐cost and highly efficient electrocatalysts for ORR is strongly desired. Herein, we report a porous carbon doped with nitrogen, fluorine, and phosphorus (N, F, P tri‐doped carbon) prepared via only a heating process using low‐cost glycine, ammonium fluoride, and phytic acid as precursors. X‐ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) analysis revealed the existence of pyridinic‐N and the co‐existence of graphitic‐N and oxidized graphitic‐P, which can be active sites, with semi‐ionic C−F bonds highly boosting ORR activity. Remarkably, the resultant N, F, P tri‐doped carbon exhibited outstanding activity for the ORR with an onset potential comparable to that of commercial 20 wt % Pt/C catalyst, the half‐wave potential superior to that of the Pt/C catalyst, and the electron transfer number close to 4.

Synergistic Vertical Graphene‐Exsolved Perovskite to Boost Reaction Kinetics for Flexible Zinc–Air Batteries

AbstractZinc–air batteries (ZABs) hold significant promise for flexible electronics due to their high energy density and low cost. However, their practical application is hindered by the sluggish kinetics of the oxygen evolution and oxygen reduction reactions (OER/ORR). This study highlights a novel design of vertical graphene arrays (VGs) anchored on PrBa0.5Sr0.5Co1.8Ru0.2O5+δ (PBSCRu) perovskite nanofibers, fabricated via plasma‐enhanced chemical vapor deposition. Notably, the VG growth induces the exsolution of Co nanoparticles from the PBSCRu perovskite, resulting in a unique PBSCRu‐Co‐VG heterostructure. Theoretical calculations demonstrate that constructing PBSCRu‐Co‐VG heterojunction regulates interfacial electronic redistribution, thereby lowering energy barriers for both OER and ORR. As a result, the PBSCRu@VG‐5 electrocatalyst exhibits superior stability and higher peak power density in both liquid and flexible solid‐state ZABs compared to the pristine PBSCRu electrocatalyst. This protocol advances the integration of synergetic perovskite/metal/graphene composites, offering considerable potential for next‐generation energy conversion technologies.

Development and experimental validation of high-order sliding mode control for quadratic boost converters in fuel cell electric vehicles

The global energy evolution is at a critical juncture, necessitating an urgent transition towards clean and sustainable energy sources, notably green hydrogen, to combat climate change and the inevi-table depletion of fossil fuels. This transition is underscored by the emergence of fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) as a promising solution for clean transportation, demanding advanced DC-DC power converter technologies to ensure their efficiency and reliability. This paper addresses the topic of control for the Quadratic Boost Converter, which presents a challenge due to its non-minimum phase characteristic and nonlinear nature. To tackle this, a nonlinear controller is developed using dual-loop control employing STA-SMC and Lyapunov theory as the control ap-proach. Simulation and experimental validation evaluate the controller's performance, testing ro-bustness against varying load currents and under time-varying reference voltages to assess its ef-fectiveness.

Vibration reduction of an electric vehicle heat exchanger by controlling the polarization of its ferroelectric ceramics

The growing requirements in terms of CO2 emissions reduction in transports renders necessary the development of new electric traction technologies. This results in new technical constraints for equipment manufacturers, forcing them to reduce the acoustic emissivity of their new products inside and outside vehicles. Heat exchangers for electric cars are part of this new product category. High voltage supplied by the battery of electrical vehicles requires introduction of a new energy conversion process and technology. To this end, components based on ceramics containing barium titanate (BaTiO3) with high electrocaloric coupling properties are selected to provide the heating function. Baryum titanate is ferroelectric. This category of materials is subjected to piezoelectric and electrostrictive effects. The vibrations induced in the components (rods) containing the BaTiO3 ceramics are transmitted through the system, and cause undesired acoustic radiation. This coupling is a suffered effect and is not taken into account in the integration process during the rods manufacturing. In this study, an experimental characterization is proposed to identify the involved electromechanical coupling coefficients. Numerical simulations of the vibrations induced by BaTiO3 are carried out and used to study the possibility of attenuating them by controlling the polarisation of the ceramics or by geometric modifications.

Impact of amorphous structure on CO2 electrocatalysis with Cu: A combined machine learning forcefield and DFT modelling approach

Amorphous materials hold significant promise for enhancing electrocatalytic CO2 reduction (CO2R) performance, but their intricate structures present challenges in understanding their behaviour. We present a computational investigation combining machine learning force fields and DFT calculations to explore amorphous copper (Cu) as a potential catalyst for the CO2R to C1 and C2 products. Our study reveals that amorphous Cu surfaces, compared to crystalline counterparts, offer a wider range of coordination sites, leading to a multitude of active centres for CO2 adsorption. Notably, some investigated surfaces spontaneously activate CO2, demonstrating their potential for efficient conversion. Furthermore, the intermediates of the CO2R on these surfaces exhibit enhanced stability, translating to lower overpotentials and improved selectivity. This work paves the way for further research and development in using amorphous Cu-based catalysts for sustainable CO2 conversion technologies, offering significant potential for mitigating climate change.

Recent Advances in Barium Cobaltite-Based Perovskite Oxides as Cathodes for Intermediate-Temperature Solid Oxide Fuel Cells.

Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) are considered as advanced energy conversion technologies due to the high efficiency, fuel flexibility, and all-solid structure. Nevertheless, their widespread applications are strongly hindered by the high operational temperatures, limited material selection choices, inferior long-term stability, and relatively high costs. Therefore, reducing operational temperatures of SOFCs to intermediate-temperature (IT, 500-800°C) range can remarkably promote the practical applications by enabling the use of low-cost materials and enhancing the cell stability. Nevertheless, the conventional cathodes for high-temperature SOFCs display inferior electrocatalytic activity for oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) at reduced temperatures. Barium cobaltite (BaCoO3-δ)-based perovskite oxides are regarded as promising cathodes for IT-SOFCs because of the high free lattice volume and large oxygen vacancy content. However, BaCoO3-δ-based perovskite oxides suffer from poor structural stability, inferior thermal compatibility, and insufficient ionic conductivity. Herein, an in-time review about the recent advances in BaCoO3-δ-based cathodes for IT-SOFCs is presented by emphasizing the material design strategies including functional/selectively doping, deficiency control, and (nano)composite construction to enhance the ORR activity/durability and thermal compatibility. Finally, the currently existed challenges and future research trends are presented. This review will provide valuable insights for the development of BaCoO3-δ-based electrocatalysts for various energy conversion/storage technologies.

Fabrication of Low-Cost Porous Carbon Polypropylene Composite Sheets with High Photothermal Conversion Performance for Solar Steam Generation.

The development of absorber materials with strong light absorption properties and low-cost fabrication processes is highly significant for the application of photothermal conversion technology. In this work, a mixed powder consisting of NaCl, polypropylene (PP), and scale-like carbon flakes was ultrasonically pressed into sheets, and the NaCl was then removed by salt dissolution to obtain porous carbon polypropylene composite sheets (P-CPCS). This process is simple, green, and suitable for the low-cost, large-area fabrication of P-CPCS. P-CPCS has a well-distributed porous structure containing internal and external connected water paths. Under the dual effects of the carbon flakes and porous structure, P-CPCS shows excellent photothermal conversion performance in a broad wavelength range. P-CPCS-40 achieves a high temperature of 128 °C and a rapid heating rate of 12.4 °C/s under laser irradiation (808 nm wavelength, 1.2 W/cm2 power). When utilized for solar steam generation under 1 sun irradiation, P-CPCS-40 achieves 98.2% evaporation efficiency and a 1.81 kg m-2 h-1 evaporation rate. This performance means that P-CPCS-40 outperforms most other previously reported absorbers in terms of evaporation efficiency. The combination of carbon flakes, which provide a photothermal effect, and a porous polymer structure, which provides light-capturing properties, opens up a new strategy for desalination, sewage treatment, and other related fields.

Enhancing biofuel production in hydrothermal liquefaction of cassava rhizome through alkaline catalyst application and water-soluble product recirculation

Hydrothermal liquefaction (HTL) possesses an outstanding biomass thermal conversion technology for producing biocrude oil (BO). Here, cassava rhizome (CR) was converted into BO via catalytic HTL using 1.0–10.0 wt% of K2CO3 and Na2CO3 with water-soluble product (WSP) recirculation at 275 °C for 15 min. The catalysts and WSP recirculation could enhance the BO fuel properties. The dominant BO yield of 38.00 and 34.80 wt% and HHV of 25.42 and 25.92 Mj/kg were derived using 4.0 wt% of K2CO3 and Na2CO3, respectively. Chemical compositions of the BO were principally phenols and hydrocarbons, which can be further upgraded and fractionated into alternative biofuels. On the other hand, the mass yield and HHV of the hydrochar (HC) co-product were reduced by the alkaline catalysts, while being maintained by WSP recirculation. The HC fuel characterization elucidated that the HC can be used as an alternative to coal. Furthermore, WSP characterization determined that organic acids were the major composition of the WSP. Thus, WSP recirculation can enhance CR decomposition according to the proposed reaction mechanism. These results indicate that the alkaline application and WSP recirculation constitute a dominant method for enhancing biofuel production via HTL.

Hydrogen Evolution Reaction Activity in Mo2TiC2Tx MXene Derived from Mo2TiAlC2 MAX Phase: Insights from Compositional Transformations.

MAX phases represent a crucial building block for the synthesis of MXenes, which constitute an intriguing class of materials with significant application potential. This study investigates the catalytic properties of the Mo2TiAlC2 MAX phase and the corresponding Mo2TiC2T x MXene for the hydrogen evolution reaction (HER). Characterization by X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy-dispersive spectroscopy (EDS), and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) revealed that despite the presence of secondary phases, the HER catalytic activity is primarily influenced by the MAX phase and its derived MXene. Interestingly, the catalytic activity of the MXene improves over time, attributed to the formation of MoO2 as identified by XPS. This work enhances the understanding of MXene-based materials for electrochemical applications, highlighting crucial structural and chemical transformations that optimize their performance in energy conversion technologies.

Attaining promising efficiency through a Quasi-Solid-State symmetrical supercapacitor and Dye-Sensitized solar cell counter electrode utilizing bifunctional Nitrogen-Doped microporous activated carbon

This study addresses the imperative need for high-performance and sustainable energy storage and conversion technologies by leveraging the unique properties of nitrogen-doped porous carbon (N@WnAC) derived from the waste walnut shells (WnS). In the realm of supercapacitors, the N@WnAC demonstrates remarkable performance in a three-electrode system, showcasing a high specific capacitance value of 276.7 Fg−1 at 1 Ag−1, outstanding stability (96.6 %, 5000 charge–discharge cycles) and favourable rate capability (68.8 % at 10 Ag−1). Moreover, a quasi-solid-state symmetrical supercapacitor (N@WnAC//N@WnAC) is fabricated with PVA/H2SO4 gel electrolyte, underscores outstanding performance by delivering high capacitance (126.2 Fg−1 at 0.5 Ag−1), promising rate capability (71.8 % at 5 Ag−1), favourable long-term stability (93.3 %, 5000 charge–discharge cycles), and faster charge–discharge kinetics compared to conventional counterparts. At the same time, N@WnAC//N@WnAC delivers a high energy density (42.27 Whkg−1 at 0.5 Ag−1) that was retained up to 23.96 Whkg−1 even at 5 Ag−1. Simultaneously, the study explores the potential of N@WnAC as a counter-electrode (CE) in dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSC). The obtained results underscore that unique nitrogen doping enhances the electrocatalytic activity, leading to improved electron transfer kinetics and overall cell performance. Moreover, the N@WnAC CE-based DSSC delivers a promising overall solar-to-electrical conversion efficiency of 5.84 %.

Design optimization and off-design performance analysis of one-dimensional supercritical CO2 Brayton cycle

Supercritical carbon dioxide (SCO2) recompression Brayton cycle (RBC) is an encouraging technology for thermal power conversion and heat harvest for a wide range of heat sources due to its high-efficiency, low auxiliary power consumption, and compact size. However, most studies on its design and off-design performance analysis have been limited to the simple zero-dimensional component models without considering aerothermodynamics and ambient conditions. In this study, we developed a set of fully one-dimensional components models for SCO2 compressors, turbines, and heat exchangers, and, then, applied them to the multi-objective design optimization of a SCO2 cycle targeting a 50 MW net power output. The cycle off-design performance analysis methods and the control strategies were developed to countermeasure the performance degradation against the varying cooling water temperatures and part loads. The multi-objective cycle design optimization demonstrates that the cycle thermal efficiency and total product unit cost can be 0.476 and 11.652$/GJ, respectively, for the 50 MW SCO2 RBC cycle. The choke margin of the main compressor is 0.136 less than that of the re-compressor, and condensation can lead to a sharp decline in efficiency under high-flow conditions, causing the earlier onset of choking. The off-design performance analysis shows that the turbine inlet pressure control improves cycle efficiency below the design point of 317 K but does otherwise above the point. In contrast, inventory control strategies can maintain stable cycle efficiency and achieve adjustable net power output between 10 % and 110 %. The findings have the potential to advance further the commercial application of SCO2 cycles in high-temperature thermal energy systems.

Nanorod-based smart windows with solid-gel electrolyte: An integrated electrochromic and pseudocapacitive technology for energy-saving and conversion

We fabricated two emerging nanorod-based smart windows with WO3 and NiO nanorods grown on the ITO/glass and ITO/muscovite mica (MM) substrates, respectively. The WO3/ITO/glass and WO3/ITO/MM substrates are excellent working electrodes, while the NiO/ITO/glass and NiO/ITO/MM substrates are exceptional counter electrodes. The nanorod-based WO3/Li+(s)/NiO@glass smart window consists of a WO3/ITO/glass working electrode, a NiO/ITO/glass counter electrode, and a solid-gel LiClO4 electrolyte (labeled as Li+(s)), respectively. The other nanorod-based WO3/Li+(s)/NiO@MM is comprised of a WO3/ITO/MM working electrode, a NiO/ITO/MM counter electrode, and a solid-gel LiClO4 electrolyte, respectively. Both the nanorod-based WO3/Li+(s)/NiO@glass and WO3/Li+(s)/NiO@MM smart windows have brilliant dual-band (red and near-infrared lights) electrochromic behaviors, such as large transmittance differences (ΔT), fast response times (bleaching time, tb, and coloration time, tc) at red (680nm) and near infrared (1000nm) lights and great electrochromic retention (4,000 cycles), and outstanding pseudocapacitive performances like good specific capacitances of ~18.4F/g and ~7.6F/g, intensive power densities of ~1779W/kg and ~2100W/kg with corresponding energy densities of ~5.4Wh/kg and ~2.2Wh/kg, enormous pseudocapacitive retention (10,000 cycles), and so on. Therefore, the brilliant dual-band electrochromic behaviors and outstanding pseudocapacitive performances make the nanorod-based WO3/Li+(s)/NiO@glass and WO3/Li+(s)/NiO@MM smart windows tremendous for use in multifunctional energy-saving-conversion devices.

Loofah-based self-powered triboelectric nanogenerator-supercapacitor for an integrated self-charging energy system

New urbanization is ushering in a surge in construction and amplifying a substantial demand for urban road development, simultaneously spurring innovation and development of environmentally sustainable power sources. Triboelectric nanogenerator (TENG), a revolutionary technology of energy conversion, efficiently capturing high-entropy energy from the environment and offering the advantages of self-powered and immediacy. Recognizing the critical need to store the energy harvested by TENGs, we present an integrated energy conversion and storage system that combines a loofah-based self-powered rotating TENG (LS-TENG) with a supercapacitor. The maximum instantaneous output power and the corresponding instantaneous power density of the LS-TENG are 0.75mW and 202.69mW/m2 at 30rpm. The supercapacitor, featuring carbon nanotube (CNT) interdigitated electrodes created through microelectronic printing technology, utilizes polyacrylamide (PAM)-lithium chloride (LiCl) as a gel electrolyte (adhesion strength of 16.69 kPa). The supercapacitor is seamlessly integrated onto the back of the LS-TENG’s stator, which effectively simplified the energy conversion and storage system. At a current density of 0.01mA/cm2, the supercapacitor achieves a high volumetric capacitance of 341.47 mF/cm3, an energy density of 17.07mWh/cm3, and a power density of 257.07 mW/cm3, with a remarkable capacitance retention rate of 99.12% after 30000 cycles at a current density of 0.02mA/cm2. Furthermore, a concept demonstration of an integrated self-charging energy system is implemented, in which the supercapacitor can be charged at wind speed rate of 3.0m/s. The proposed integrated energy storage and conversion system makes it ideal for converting and storing wind energy.

Machine learning based prediction and iso-conversional assessment of oxidatively torrefied spent coffee grounds pyrolysis

This research focused on developing a predictive model for mass loss during the pyrolysis of oxidatively torrefied spent coffee grounds (SCG) using machine learning techniques. Four algorithms were employed: artificial neural networks (ANN), k-nearest neighbors (k-NN), random forest (RF), and decision tree (DT), with the RF model demonstrating superior performance (R2 > 0.9981, RMSE <1.346) for both training and testing sets. The pyrolysis behavior, kinetics, and thermodynamics of SCG were also investigated using thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) under an inert atmosphere at different heating rates. Higher heating rates in TGA cause Tpeak values to shift to higher temperatures with increased DTGpeak values, while also resulting in lower Tonset and higher Toffset. Kinetic analysis, using the Flynn-Wall-Ozawa (FWO) method, was identified as the most suitable approach for determining activation energy (Ea), with values ranging from 192.66 to 288.13 kJ mol−1, indicating differences in energy requirements for pyrolysis across samples. Thermodynamic analysis further revealed that both raw SCG and oxidatively torrefied SCG pyrolysis were endothermic reactions. These findings contribute valuable insights into the optimization of biomass conversion technologies, highlighting the potential of machine learning in improving predictive accuracy and efficiency in thermal behavior modeling. This research advances sustainable bioenergy production by promoting the use of SCG, an abundant waste material, as a renewable feedstock in pyrolysis-based processes.

Enhanced performance of novel green synthesized CuS nanostructures decorated with Rh and Pd nanoparticles for energy generation and gas sensing applications

This article investigates the utilization of copper sulfide (CuS) based nanomaterials functionalized with rhodium (Rh) and palladium (Pd) nanoparticles for gas sensing and energy generation applications. CuS nanoparticles, known for their unique properties, were combined with Rh and Pd nanoparticles to enhance hydrogen (H2) gas sensing capabilities. Gas sensing experiments revealed that CuS/Rh/Pd nanocomposites exhibited the highest sensing response of 58.33% to H2, indicating the significant improvement in gas sensing properties due to the combined presence of Rh and Pd nanoparticles in CuS matrices. Moreover, temperature-dependent responses provided insights into optimal operating conditions for effective gas sensing with CuS-based nanocomposites. Comprehensive characterization studies including XPS, Raman, and morphology analysis confirmed the successful synthesis of CuS/Rh/Pd nanomaterials with high purity and desirable structural properties. Dye-sensitized solar cell (DSSC) performance studies demonstrated that CuS/Rh/Pd nanocomposites enhanced the efficiency by minimizing light over-absorption and improving photoanode stability. Overall, this study highlighted the potential of metal nanoparticle-decorated CuS nanocomposites for advanced gas sensing and energy generation applications, paving the way for the development of highly sensitive and efficient gas sensors and solar energy conversion technologies.

Oscillating water column supporting structures: A review

Abstract Numerous studies on the potential for wave energy in Indonesian waters have been conducted using Wave Energy Converter (WEC). One of the most extensively studied and developed wave energy conversion technologies is the Oscillating Water Column (OWC). Although OWC technology has the good potential, there are still several difficulties and problems that prevent its widespread development and use. One is the difficulty of keeping the systems working in hostile marine conditions. The supporting structure is an integral part of the design and operation of an OWC system. An OWC system’s structural design must guarantee lifespan, stability, and dependability in a severe marine environment. More study is required to create durable and dependable systems, mainly supporting structures functioning in these conditions. This study reviews existing literature to analyse the structural strength of OWC systems, aiming to provide insights into methods for enhancing their durability and reliability, particularly in harsh marine conditions. Key findings include the classification of various supporting structure technologies used in OWC projects, providing insights into their effectiveness and applicability in different environmental settings. Moreover, the study emphasizes ongoing efforts to address obstacles limiting the widespread adoption of OWC technology, underscoring the need for further research and development.