Conventional Bicycle Research Articles

A Scientometric Review of Powered Micromobility

Micromobility is an emerging field of transportation, referring to trips undertaken by a range of microvehicles. Microvehicles encompass both traditional and emerging types of light vehicles from conventional bicycles and powered-two wheelers, through to e-bikes and e-scooters, e-skateboards and “hoverboards”. The recent uptake in powered microvehicles emphasizes the need to understand the knowledge domain of micromobility research. This paper summarises the research status by identifying main contributors to and evolutionary trends in the field. The study applied scientometric analysis techniques to review 474 articles published between 1991 and 2020. The search on Thomson Reuter’s Web of Science database was guided by the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) common vocabulary for powered micromobility. Results show a proliferation of research in the field of powered micromobility since 2012, which demonstrates that the growth in research is occurring alongside the increased availability of microvehicles and trips being made using microvehicles. A broad range of research topics including user behaviour, vehicle technology, planning, policy, health and safety were identified with the latter two found to be the most studied areas. Findings suggest many potential benefits of using micromobility and that the field will continue to grow, spurred by the popularity of shared e-scooter schemes. Greater collaboration in the field is desirable to broaden the dissemination of knowledge.

The Bicycle in the land of electric (auto)mobility

Electric mobility has had a great impact as a major axis of intervention to move forward to a landscape at once less dependent on fossil fuels and more sustainable. Starting out from this framework, the objective we wish to pursue is to draw attention to the restrictive reading imposed on the concept of electric mobility, predominately identified with its automotive branch, leaving aside the bicycle. The contribution of the electric automobile to the fulfilment of the objectives demanded by sustainable mobility has been tackled, thus demonstrating the limitations of technological solutions and emphasising the need to reduce the number of cars, their usage and speed, and the need to prioritise pedestrians, cyclists and public transport. After analysing the evolution, benefits and risks of the electric bicycle, it is confirmed that this is by far the most widespread electric vehicle, despite the tiny amount of public aid it receives. It stands out for its powerful strategic value to attract many people to cycling who are reluctant to use conventional bicycles, or who want to make longer journeys effortlessly, or are put off by steep slopes, or want to carry loads or children. Finally, greater public attention is advocated for electric bicycles, suggesting criteria and lines of action to give shape to policies in this area.

Safety of e-bikes compared to conventional bicycles: What role does cyclists’ health condition play?

IntroductionThe rising use of e-bikes (EBs) presents an opportunity to increase active transportation but may compromise road safety due to increased travel speed and weight compared to conventional bicycle (CBs). Evidence comparing the safety of EBs and CBs is limited while the influence of cyclists’ health status has been neglected. MethodsThis cross-sectional case-control study compared EB and CB users in the Netherlands. Data were gathered 1) through a survey among crash casualties treated at emergency departments aged >16 (N = 2383) and 2) control group data were collected among cyclists without any known crash experience, randomly drawn from a panel of the Dutch population (N = 1860). Using logistic regressions, we assessed the likelihood of crashes and crash severity while adjusting for bicycle use and health status. ResultsEB users had poorer health than CB users, but they were not more likely to be involved in a crash or to sustain more severe injuries. However, older female cyclists did have an elevated risk on EBs and sustained more severe injuries. Health-related factors such as the presence of morbid conditions, medication use, and the body mass index were neither associated with crash likelihood nor associated with injury severity and accordingly did not explain the findings for older females. However, balance and coordination problems, and the use of anti-epileptic drugs were associated with crashes. ConclusionOur findings provide support that EB users have a poorer health status than CB users, while general health status is unrelated to the likelihood and severity of bicycle crashes. EBs enable more vulnerable groups to cycle or keep cycling but, after controlling for bicycle use, EB users are not more likely to be involved in a crash or to sustain severe injuries. As older females run a higher risk on an EB and are more likely to fall while (dis)mounting, we recommend to promote EBs enabling safer (dis)mounting such as by reduced saddle height.

Wayfinding for cycle highways: Assessing e-bike users' experiences with wayfinding along a cycle highway in the Netherlands

In many regions, governments are motivating increased bicycle ridership by designing new and improving existing bicycle infrastructure. Cycle highways are an effective and cost-efficient type of bicycle-specific infrastructure that are designed to provide a functional connection between places where people work, go to school and live. One important element of developing high quality cycle highways is the development of an effective wayfinding system which allows current, potential, and new users to clearly identify and navigate a bicycle network. The wayfinding design standards used for conventional bicycle infrastructure may not be compatible for cycle highways, which encourage cyclists to travel at relatively higher speeds. This may warrant introducing specific wayfinding signage compatible for this new type of bicycle infrastructure. This study uses qualitative analysis including field observations, ride-along videos, and semi-structured interviews, to assess electrically assisted pedal bicycle (e-bike) users' opinions and experiences with wayfinding signage along a pilot cycle highway route located between Tilburg and Waalwijk in the Netherlands. In the summer of 2018, base-line observations and interviews were administered with twelve e-bike users who were unfamiliar with the route to assess their experiences with conventional signage for cyclists before changes were made to the wayfinding system. Follow-up observations were held in the fall, after the installation of two new pilot wayfinding systems that were specifically designed to accommodate cycle highway users. Initial findings suggest that the changes made to the location, size and clarity of the signage improve cyclists' overall experiences, and that cyclists' perceptions of the built environment are important. Specifically, it became easier for users to navigate the route, their overall travel related stress decreased, and several participants perceived shorter travel times. Policy makers and transportation planners are likely to be interested in the results of this study as they reveal how specific improvements to wayfinding along cycle highways not only help improve navigation, but also positively influence cyclists' overall comfort and stress.

Development of Self Power Generating Conventional Bicycle

Development of Self Power Generating Conventional Bicycle

Electric bicycle mode substitution for driving, public transit, conventional cycling, and walking

The key to understanding the impacts of electric bicycles (e-bikes) on congestion, the environment, and public health is to what extent they displace travel by other (particularly motorized) modes of transportation. This study investigates the mode substitution effects of e-bikes, based on a meta-analysis of 38 observations of mode substitution patterns reported in 24 published studies from around the world. Median mode substitution reported in the literature is highest for public transit (33%), followed by conventional bicycle (27%), automobile (24%), and walking (10%), but varies widely with interquartile ranges of 31% for auto and 44% for public transit. Weighted mixed logit model results indicate a trade-off in substitution of motorized modes, with significantly greater displacement of public transit in China and greater displacement of auto travel elsewhere (Europe, North America, and Australia). Newer studies report greater displacement of driving and walking and less displacement of conventional bicycle trips, which indicates a positive trend. Results also suggest that e-bike adoption may be part of a transition away from conventional bicycle use, while displacing auto and transit travel after adoption. Further studies are needed in the context of evolving forms of micromobility, particularly outside of northern Europe and China.

A Cyclist-Domain-Based Method for Evaluating the Level of Service of a Bicycle Lane

Evaluating the level of service (LOS) of bicycle lanes is essential in planning, designing, and maintaining bicycle infrastructure. This study presents a new concept—the cyclist domain—for characterizing interactions between cyclists and proposes a cyclist-domain-based method for evaluating the LOS of bicycle lanes. Unlike conventional bicycle lane LOS evaluation method, which counts the weighted events numbers and may generate inaccurate results and even misleading decisions, we specified four types of overlapping cyclist domains to characterize potential impacts in various riding events. The cyclist domain influence ratio (CDIR) derived from cycling trajectories is used to measure the negative impact between cyclists. We then propose an LOS evaluation method for bicycle lanes based on CDIRs. The user comfort is defined as the sum of products of CDIRs and respective durations. The bicycle lane LOS is then evaluated by the average comfort of all users. The case study shows that the proposed method can efficiently and effectively evaluate the bicycle lane LOS.

Spatio-Temporal Trends of E-Bike Sharing System Deployment: A Review in Europe, North America and Asia

Recent data on conventional bike and/or electric bike (e-bike) sharing systems reveal that more than 2900 systems are operating in cities worldwide, indicating the increased adoption of this alternative mode of transportation. Addressing the existing gap in the literature regarding the deployment of e-bike sharing systems (e-BSSs) in particular, this paper reviews their spatio-temporal characteristics, and attempts to (a) map the worldwide distribution of e-BSSs, (b) identify temporal trends in terms of annual growth/expansion of e-BSS deployment worldwide and (c) explore the spatial characteristics of the recorded growth, in terms of adoption on a country scale, population coverage and type of system/initial fleet sizes. To that end, it examines the patterns identified from the global to the country level, based on data collected from an online source of BSS information worldwide. A comparative analysis is performed with a focus on Europe, North America and Asia, providing insights on the growth rate of the specific bikesharing market segment. Although the dockless e-BSS has been only within three years of competition with station-based implementations, it shows a rapid integration to the overall technology diffusion trend, while it is more established in Asia and North America in comparison with Europe and launches with larger fleet sizes.

Bicycle-related injuries in the emergency department: a comparison between E-bikes and conventional bicycles: a prospective observational study.

To investigate the mechanisms and severity of injuries of e-bikers compared with conventional bicycle (CB) users at the emergency department (ED) of a level 2 trauma center in the Netherlands. We performed a prospective observational study. All patients ≥ 16years who presented at the ED with an e-bike or conventional bicycle accident were eligible for inclusion. Primary outcomes were mechanisms and severity of injury. Injury severity was defined by the abbreviated injury score and the injury severity score (ISS). Data were analyzed using SPSS (IBM version 24). A total of 78 e-bikers and 91 CB, were included. The mean age of the e-bikers was 66.9 ± 13.6years (CB 45.2 ± 20.5years, P < 0.001). The Charlson comorbidity index was higher in e-bikers (3.1 vs. 1.2, P < 0.001). Mechanism of injury and ISS did not differ between the groups (median ISS 4.0), even though two e-bikers were severely injured (ISS ≥ 16). Alcohol was consumed twice as frequently in CB-related injuries (40% vs. 19.2%, P < 0.01). In this cohort of bicycle injuries in the ED of a level 2 trauma center, e-bikers were older and had more comorbidities than CB users. Except for a higher rate of thoracic and soft-tissue trauma in e-bikers, no differences were found in the mechanism and severity of injury. While it is important to note that helmet use and alcohol avoidance have demonstrable health benefits for bicyclists, further studies to quantify these benefits are recommended.

Effect of environmental awareness on electric bicycle users’ mode choices

Travellers’ environmental awareness can affect their mode choices. The primary objective of this study is to identify the effect of electric bicycle (e-bike) users’ environmental awareness on their mode choice when the use of e-bikes is prohibited in urban areas in China. The data were collected via a questionnaire survey administered at ten locations in Nanjing, China. Using mixed multinomial logit (MMNL) models, we examined the relationship between the e-bike users’ mode choice and their environmental awareness, combined with socioeconomic and demographic characteristics and trip attributes. The results show that the level of environmental awareness, gender, age, education, income, the ownership of car and conventional bike, and trip distance affect e-bike users’ choices significantly. Those with a high level of environmental awareness are more likely to choose zero-emission transport modes. A stratified analysis reveals that the effect of environmental awareness is associated with their original transport mode choice prior to their use of the e-bike. With a high level of environmental awareness, original car users tend to opt for moderate- or zero-emission modes; original bus and metro users incline to choose a zero-emission mode or their original mode; and few original cyclists and walkers favour moderate- or high-emission modes. The results of the current study provide transport authorities with insights to establish sustainable urban transportation management policies and strategies to increase the share of zero- and low-emission transport modes.

Comparative Analysis &amp; Modelling for Riders’ Conflict Avoidance Behavior of E-Bikes and Bicycles at Un-Signalized Intersections

With the increasing popularity of electric-assist bikes (E-bikes) in China, U.S. and Europe, the corresponding safety issues at intersections have attracted the attention of researchers. Understanding the microscopic behavior of E-bike riders during conflicts with other road users is fundamental for safety improvement and simulation modeling of E-bikes at intersections. This study compared the conflict avoidance behaviors of E-bike and conventional bicycle riders using field data extracted from video recordings of different intersections. The impact of conflicting road user type and gender on E-bikes and bicycles were analyzed. Compared with bicycles, E-bikes appeared to enable more flexibility in conflict avoidance behavior. For example, E-bikes would behave like bicycles when conflicting with motor vehicles/E-bikes, and behave more like motor vehicles when conflicting with bicycles/pedestrians. Based on this, we built an Extended Cyclist Conflict Avoidance Movement (ECCAM) model, which can represent the conflict avoidance behavior of E-bikes/bicycles at mixed traffic flow un-signalized intersections. Field data were applied to validate the proposed model, and the results are promising.

Introducing new criteria to support cycling navigation and infrastructure planning in flat and hilly cities

The main objective of this work is to quantify the energy consumption, travel time, difficulty of each route and also safety levels for cyclists in different alternative routes. For this study, cyclists ride a conventional bicycle equipped with a GNSS and the energy required is quantified with Bicycle Specific Power Methodology (BSP). Cyclists also wore an equipment to record the heart rate called Vital Jacket and a video camera to record road conflicts between cyclists and cars. The aforementioned methodology was applied to three different routes chosen in the Portuguese cities of Aveiro (flat terrain) and Porto (hilly). For the flat city, the average energy expenditure was 44, 5 Wh/km while for the hilly area the energy expenditure was 96,05 Wh/km. For each origin-destination pair by choosing an appropriate route it is possible to save about 28% energy in Aveiro and 35% in Porto. Regarding route comfort, the average number of car overtaking maneuvers to the bicycle was used as indicator, while road safety was based on historical data. The tradeoffs identified and variation magnitude of variables analyzed suggest the information provided would be useful for cyclists with heterogeneous profiles as well as to support management authorities in order to maximize the attractiveness of the various routes.

Modal shift implications of e-bike use in the Netherlands: Moving towards sustainability?

This paper investigates the modal shift patterns of e-bike users in the Dutch context. We focus on the change in e-bikers’ travel behavior to assess whether this change benefits sustainability. Our study provides direct ecologically valid evidence on modal shift by using a longitudinal dataset from the Netherlands Mobility Panel survey. We examine e-bikers’ modal shift patterns before and after acquiring an e-bike. The findings indicate that after e-bike adoptions, conventional bike use reduces significantly, while car use reduces less strongly. Nonetheless, the share of car kilometers is much larger than that of conventional bikes at the baseline. Besides, the emission rate per passenger kilometer of an e-bike is several times lower than that of a car. These imply a net environmental gain after e-bike adoptions. The present study also sheds light on modal shifts at a disaggregated level by investigating those e-bikers who are more likely to drive less after e-bike adoption. The findings suggest that e-bikers younger than 50 and those around retirement age (60–69) seem more likely to step out of their cars. Additionally, people living in rural areas tend to be more likely to reduce their car use than their counterparts in highly urbanized areas. Based on our findings, we present policy recommendations for achieving a greener shift in mobility systems.

Restructuring And Development Of Conventional Bike For Electric Vehicle Application

In this paper, the Skelton of conventional bike is chosen for converting it into battery operated Electric vehicle. The work is done in two aspects: one is restructuring and other is assembling of powertrain components. Structural modifications are made for the placement of BLDC Motor with controller and Battery. The energy source selected is Lithium-ion battery and BLDC motor is used for propulsion of wheels of the bike. The Comparative analysis of gasoline conventional bike and developed E-bike is presented in this paper.

Comparing the Traffic Operation, Fuel Consumption, and Pollutant Emission of Bike Lane Pattern Design with AIMSUN Microscopic Simulation Model: A Case Study of Nakhon Sawan Municipality in Thailand

Background: The present research aimed to compare and evaluate two forms of shared roadways, which were Conventional Bike Lane (CBL) and Median Bike Lane (MBL). Methods: The road network and traffic conditions of Nakhon Sawan Municipality, comprised of 712 links and 237 nodes, simulated by using the AIMSUN microscopic simulation software in order to compare the delay time, operating speed, total travel time, fuel consumption, and emission of carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrogen oxide (NOX), Particulate Matter (PM), and Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC). Results: The obtained results can be used as efficiency data for designing a campaign to encourage private car drivers to change their daily transportation mode to bicycle, which will ultimately help to solve traffic congestion problems and reduce environmental impacts in a sustainable way. The research results showed that a campaign encouraging a change in transportation mode should focus on reducing 36 percent of all private cars in the road network (at least 9,691 veh/hr). Conclusion: This approach will minimize the delay time in the road network by 0.89 sec/km and reduce 1,228.66 liters of fuel consumption, 2,769,764.47 g/km of carbon dioxide, 8654.86 g/km of nitrogen oxide, 1,463.33 g/km of particulate matter, and 1,383.93 g/km of volatile organic compounds.

Evaluation of the potential of classic and electric bicycle commuting as an impetus for the transition towards environmentally sustainable cities: A case study of the university campuses in Liege, Belgium

To address the negative effects of car use, conventional and electric bicycles are often proposed as environment-friendly alternatives. The aim of this research is to identify the prospects of a modal shift towards conventional and electric bicycles based on a case study analysing the mobility generated by the three main campuses of the University of Liège in Belgium. In the theoretical part of this paper, the known factors and strategies that affect most of the bicycle use in Europe are summarised and the need for a deeper understanding of the elements that promote a modal shift from bus and car users to the use of electric bicycles is highlighted. Consequently, the results of a survey conducted among the university population of the University of Liège(students, PhD students, and staff members; including 1496 questionnaire responses)are presented and analysed in detail. The Net Promoter Score (NPS), as an indicator of the user satisfaction, confirms that the bicycle has the best NPS compared with the main modes of transport (car and bus) and that the electric bicyclehas a greater NPS than the conventional bicycle. The importance of many factors affecting the use of cycling is lower if we consider the electric bicycleinstead of the conventional bicycle. Considering the current travel patterns in terms of the distances travelled, the potential for the use of conventional bicycles only reaches 23% of the university users, whereas that of electric bicycles reaches 70%. In the pursuit of a modal report, the most imminent factor is the development of safe bike paths, where a potential increase in the bicycle use is acknowledged by 74% of the students, 62% of the staff members, 62% of the car users, and 82% of the bus users. Finally, because the lack of safe cycle lanes remains the major obstacle with respect to the use of both bicycle types, the development and/or improvement of a comfortable and secure infrastructure for cyclists within a radius of 12 km from the main school and work places, especially in the main residential and commercial areas, should be prioritised to promote the use of both types of bicycles.

Can a unique appearance of e-bikes, coupled with information on their characteristics, influence drivers’ gap acceptance?

Objective: Car drivers tend to underestimate the speed of e-bikes and accept smaller gaps for crossing in front of them compared to conventional bicycles. As an explanation, it has been suggested that car drivers rely on their previous experience with conventional bicycles, which tells them that those mostly travel at low speeds. E-bikes, which look just like regular bicycles, do not conform to this expectation, resulting in potentially dangerous interactions. Based on this assumption, researchers have suggested to increase other road users’ awareness of e-bikes’ higher speeds by giving them a distinct appearance. The goal of our experiment was to investigate the effects of such a unique appearance, aided by clear instructions about the higher speeds of e-bikes, on gap acceptance.Method: In order to investigate the effect of appearance independent of the effect of bicycle type, we used video sequences of conventional bicycles and e-bikes approaching at different levels of speed. The riders (regardless of what type of bike they were actually riding) either wore an orange helmet as an indicator for an e-bike, or a gray helmet indicating a conventional bicycle. Fifty participants were asked to indicate the smallest acceptable gap for a left turn in front of the cyclist or e-bike rider.Results: The results showed significantly smaller acceptable gaps when confronted with the gray helmet (signal for bicycle) compared to the orange helmet (signal for e-bike), whereas there was no difference between the actual bicycle types.Conclusions: Overall, the results indicate that informing about e-bikes characteristics in combination with a unique appearance can lead to a more cautious behavior among car drivers.

Accident typology comparisons between pedelecs and conventional bicycles

The data from the years 2009 until 2015, collected by a scientific research team at the Hannover Medical School for the GIDAS project (German In-Depth Accident Study), were used as the study sample. Results: Injuries do not occur more often or more seriously in pedelec accidents than in conventional bicycle accidents. For accidents involving pedelec riders, almost exclusively injury severities of MAIS 1 and 2 (slight/moderate) can be observed and only one case of severe injury (MAIS 3), whereas for accidents with conventional bicyclists (Maximal Accident Injury Severity) MAIS 3+ occurs more often with 4.3%. The statistical analysis shows that head injuries occur more often in pedelec accidents (42.2%) compared to conventional bicycle accidents (35.7%). In addition, there are 21.8% more driving accidents (i.e., single-vehicle accidents such as collisions against objects or falls) involving pedelecs compared to 12.0% for conventional bicycle accidents. Finally, this study shows that pedelec riders tend to be much older than bicyclists, and the injury pattern of bicyclists and pedelec riders seems to depend on the age of the rider: with increasing age a rising risk of head injuries occurs and, therefore, the use of bicycle helmets is an important factor for injury prevention.

E-bikers’ braking behavior: Results from a naturalistic cycling study

Objective: The number of e-bike users has increased significantly over the past few years and with it the associated safety concerns. Because e-bikes are faster than conventional bicycles and more prone to be in conflict with road users, e-bikers may need to perform avoidance maneuvers more frequently. Braking is the most common avoidance maneuver but is also a complex and critical task in emergency situations, because cyclists must reduce speed quickly without losing balance. The aim of this study is to understand the braking strategies of e-bikers in real-world traffic environments and to assess their road safety implications. This article investigates (1) how cyclists on e-bikes use front and rear brakes during routine cycling and (2) whether this behavior changes during unexpected conflicts with other road users.Methods: Naturalistic data were collected from 6 regular bicycle riders who each rode e-bikes during a period of 2 weeks, for a total of 32.5 h of data. Braking events were identified and characterized through a combined analysis of brake pressure at each wheel, velocity, and longitudinal acceleration. Furthermore, the braking patterns obtained during unexpected events were compared with braking patterns during routine cycling.Results: In the majority of braking events during routine cycling, cyclists used only one brake at a time, favoring one of the 2 brakes according to a personal pre-established pattern. However, the favored brake varied among cyclists: 66% favored the rear brake and 16% the front brake. Only 16% of the cyclists showed no clear preference, variously using rear brake, front brake, or combined braking (both brakes at the same time), suggesting that the selection of which brake to use depended on the characteristics of the specific scenario experienced by the cyclist rather than on a personal preference. In unexpected conflicts, generally requiring a larger deceleration, combined braking became more prevalent for most of the cyclists; still, when combined braking was not applied, cyclists continued to use the favored brake of routine cycling. Kinematic analysis revealed that, when larger decelerations were required, cyclists more frequently used combined braking instead of single braking.Conclusions: The results provide new insights into the behavior of cyclists on e-bikes and may provide support in the development of safety measures including guidelines and best practices for optimal brake use. The results may also inform the design of braking systems intended to reduce the complexity of the braking operation.

Gender differences in accident risk with e-bikes—Survey data from Norway

E-bikes are becoming increasingly popular, and are given an important role in the green mobility of the future. However, some have raised concerns that the increased speed and the increased weight of the e-bike can lead to more accidents among cyclists riding an e-bike, as compared to conventional bicycles. Furthermore, it has been suggested that e-bikes may appeal to new groups of cyclists with little cycling experience, which may further impede cyclist safety. Previous research has not provided a clear picture. We investigate these questions with data from three surveys carried out in Norway (N = 7752). A logistic regression analysis comparing conventional and electric bicycles, controlling for age gender and exposure, shows an overall risk increase (all accidents) for e-bike users. The results suggest that this increased risk derives from females having a higher accident risk on e-bikes. For men there is no risk difference between e-bikes and conventional bikes. Some, but not all, of this elevated risk can be attributed to being unfamiliar with the bicycle. E-bikes are not more likely to cause serious accidents than conventional bicycles. In-depth analysis of accident causation showed that there was no difference in the factors leading to accidents, except that there was a somewhat higher prevalence of accidents resulting from balance problems with e-bikes.