Control Of Disinfection By-products Research Articles

Meta-analysis and Mendelian randomization study on the association between exposure to chlorinated disinfection byproducts and preterm birth risk.

This study aims to investigate the correlation between exposure to disinfection byproducts of chlorination and preterm birth (PTB) through evidence-based medicine Meta-analysis and Mendelian randomization (MR) analysis. Meta-analysis was conducted on 17 studies involving 1,251,426 neonates, revealing a higher risk of PTB with exposure to total trihalomethanes (TTHMs) and chloroform. Mendelian randomization (MR) analysis confirmed a causal relationship between chlorides and PTB. TTHMs and chloroform were associated with increased PTB risk, while haloacetic acids showed no significant association. TTHMs were linked to small gestational age. Ethnicity and study design influenced heterogeneity. Exposure to chlorination byproducts, particularly TTHMs and chloroform, poses a significant risk for PTB. MR analysis supports a causal relationship between chlorides and PTB, highlighting the importance of water disinfection byproduct control in preventing PTB.

Degradation of levofloxacin by dielectric barrier discharge plasma/chlorine process: Roles of reactive species and control of chlorination disinfection byproducts.

In this study, a novel process of dielectric barrier discharge (DBD)/chlorine for levofloxacin (LEV) degradation was investigated. The combined system boosted the degradation efficiency of LEV from 77.8% to 97.5%, improved the reaction rate constant by 2.3 times, and reduced energy consumption by 64.5%. DBD/chlorine process was highly efficient for LEV degradation across a pH range of 3.3-10.8, with removal rates varying from 90.3% to 97.5%. The electron paramagnetic resonance and scavenging experiments demonstrated the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS, including HO•, 1O2, and O2•-) and reactive chlorine species (RCS) in the DBD/chlorine system, with 1O2 in the nonradical pathway being crucial for LEV removal. Crucially, effective activation of chlorine not only encouraged the production of reactive species but also prevented the formation of disinfection by-products (DBPs), successfully controlling the ecotoxicity of the reaction system. DBD could activate chlorine to form chlorate and HO•, which in turn triggered the production of RCS. The comparison of the LEV degradation pathway was proposed with or without chlorine in the DBD process. Finally, the effects of different water quality and water bodies demonstrated the application prospects of the DBD/chlorine process. This work provided an efficient technique for the elimination of antibiotics by non-thermal plasma/chlorine.

Control of Aromatic Disinfection Byproducts in Potable Reuse Water by the UV222/H2O2 vs UV254/H2O2 Advanced Oxidation Processes.

Research has demonstrated the difficulty associated with degrading the conventional 1-2 carbon aliphatic halogenated byproducts of disinfectant reactions with organic matter [disinfection byproducts (DBPs)] within advanced oxidation process (AOP) units in potable reuse trains, but the efficacy of AOP units for treating the emerging classes of halogenated aromatic DBPs is unclear. We herein demonstrate more effective removal of 28 halogenated aromatic DBPs in the UV/H2O2 AOP at 222 nm (UV222) than in the conventional UV/H2O2 AOP at 254 nm. Direct photolysis of 28 halogenated aromatic DBPs was greatly enhanced at 222 nm with fluence-based photodecay rate constants of 4.31 × 10-4-1.53 × 10-2 cm2 mJ-1, which was mainly attributed to the higher molar absorption coefficients of halogenated aromatic DBPs at 222 nm than 254 nm. Generally, quantum yields of halogenated aromatic DBPs at both 222 and 254 nm followed the order of halophenols > halohydroxybenzaldehydes > halonitrophenols. All 28 halogenated aromatic DBPs exhibit high reactivity toward HO• with second-order rate constants ranging from 2.18 × 109 to 1.15 × 1010 M-1 s-1 determined by X-ray radiolysis. The UV fluence required to achieve 90% loss of halogenated aromatic DBPs in the UV222/H2O2 AOP was 75-95% lower than that in the UV254/H2O2 AOP, and 90% removal of most tested halogenated aromatic DBPs can be achieved in the UV222/H2O2 AOP within the UV fluence levels commonly applied in potable reuse (700-1000 mJ cm-2).

Optimizing ozone treatment for pathogen removal and disinfection by-product control for potable reuse at pilot-scale

Reclaimed water poses environmental and human health risks due to residual organic micropollutants and pathogens. Ozonation of reclaimed water to control pathogens and trace organics is an important step in advanced water treatment systems for potable reuse of reclaimed water. Ensuring efficient pathogen reduction while controlling disinfection byproducts remains a significant challenge to implementing ozonation in reclaimed water reuse applications. This study aimed to investigate ozonation conditions using a plug flow reactor (PFR) to achieve effective pathogen removal/inactivation while minimizing bromate and N-Nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) formation. The pilot scale study was conducted using three doses of ozone (0.7, 1.0 and 1.4 ozone/total organic carbon (O3/TOC) ratio) to determine the disinfection performance using actual reclaimed water. The disinfection efficiency was assessed by measuring total coliforms, Escherichia coli (E. coli), Pepper Mild Mottle Virus (PMMoV), Tomato Brown Rugose Fruit Virus (ToBRFV) and Norovirus (HNoV). The ozone CT values ranged from 1.60 to 13.62 mg min L−1, resulting in significant reductions in pathogens and indicators. Specifically, ozone treatment led to concentration reductions of 2.46–2.89, 2.03–2.18, 0.46–1.63, 2.23–2.64 and > 4 log for total coliforms, E. coli, PMMoV, ToBRFV, and HNoV, respectively. After ozonation, concentrations of bromate and NDMA increased, reaching levels between 2.8 and 12.0 μg L−1, and 28–40.0 ng L−1, respectively, for average feed water bromide levels of 86.7 ± 1.8 μg L−1 and TOC levels of 7.2 ± 0.1 mg L−1. The increases in DBP formation were pronounced with higher ozone dosages, possibly requiring removal/control in subsequent treatment steps in some potable reuse applications.

Impact of permanganate with polyaluminium chloride on algae-laden karst water: Behaviors and disinfection by-products control

The removal of algal organic matter (AOM) through water treatment processes is a major approach of reducing the formation of disinfection by-products (DBP). Here, the formation of DBP from AOM in karst water under different combination of potassium permanganate (KMnO4) and polyaluminium chloride (PACl) was investigated. The effect of divalent ions (Ca2+ and Mg2+) on DBP formation was traced by AOM chemistry variations. For DBP formation after KMnO4 preoxidation, total carbonaceous DBPs (C-DBPs) decreased by 12.9% but nitrogen-containing DBPs (N-DBPs) increased by 18.8%. Conversely, the C-DBPs further increased by 3.3% but N-DBPs reduced by 10.7% after the addition of PACl besides KMnO4 preoxidation. The variations of aromatic protein-like, soluble microbial products-like compounds and ultraviolet absorbance at 254 nm (UV254) were highly correlated with the formation of DBPs, which suggest aromatic substances strongly affect DBP behaviors at different treatment conditions. In the presence of divalent ions (Ca2+ = 135.86 mg/L, Mg2+ = 18.51 mg/L), the combination of KMnO4 and PACl was more effective in controlling DBP formation compared to the situation without Ca2+ and Mg2+. Specifically, trichloromethane formation was largely inhibited compared to the other tested DBPs, which may refer to complexation of electron-donating groups via divalent ions. While Ca2+ and Mg2+ may not affect the nature of α-carbon and amine groups, so the variation of haloacetonitriles (HANs) was not obvious. The study enhances the understanding of the DBP formation patterns, transformation of carbon and nitrogen by preoxidation-coagulation (KMnO4-PACl) treatment in algae-laden karst water.

Biomimetic cytotoxicity control of select nitrogenous disinfection byproducts in water

Nitrogenous disinfection byproducts (N-DBPs) in water are carcinogenic, teratogenic, and mutagenic. In this work, we developed a biomimetic reduction approach based on the cysteine thiol that destructed the highly toxic, select nitrogenous haloacetamides (HAMs) and haloacetonitriles (HANs) while effectively controlling the cytotoxicity of the degradation products to serve as a basis for further technological applications (e.g. immobilized contact bed for terminal users). Mechanisms on toxicity control were elucidated. Results showed the degradation and cytotoxicity control of HAMs as more efficient than that of the HANs. The cytotoxicity of the chlorinated, brominated, and iodinated HAMs and HANs was reduced to 25 %− 0.25 % of the original after biomimetic reduction using a reasonable concentration ratio. Through a combination of thiol-specific reactivity, dehalogenation, and quantitative structure-activity relationship analyses, the major toxicity control mechanisms were found to be the reductive dehalogenation of the N-DBPs. The halogenated functional groups on the N-DBPs had a more pronounced effect than the amide and nitrile groups on the cytotoxicity and detoxification effect. Patterns of toxicity interaction variations with DBPs concentrations were identified to detect possible synergistic cytotoxicity interactions under various combinations of HAMs and HANs in the presence of the cysteine thiol. Results could benefit future N-DBPs control efforts.

Controlling Disinfection Byproducts at Maine Water's Mirror Lake Water Treatment Plant

Key TakeawaysWith elevated disinfection byproduct (DBP) levels in its distribution system, a water treatment plant in Maine worked with an engineering consultant to develop solutions and avoid possible regulatory violations.Four mitigation options were determined—two of them immediate and two long‐term, with the chosen strategy being premembrane coagulation.Recommendations from the success of the DBP mitigation project include being proactive, collaborating with team members and outside experts, and planning for resilience.

A group of emerging heterocyclic nitrogenous disinfection byproducts: Formation and cytotoxicity of halopyridinols in drinking water

Recently, a new group of halopyridinol disinfection byproducts (DBPs) was reported in drinking water. The in vivo developmental and acute toxicity assays have shown that they were more toxic than a few commonly known aliphatic DBPs such as bromoform and iodoacetic acid. However, many pyridinol DBPs with the same main structures but different halogen substitutions were still unknown due to complicated water quality conditions and various disinfection methods applied in drinking water treatment plants. Studies on their transformation mechanisms in drinking water disinfection were quite limited. In this study, comprehensive detection and identification of halopyridinols were conducted, and five new halopyridinols were first reported, including 2-chloro-3-pyridinol, 2,6-dichloro-3-pyridinol, 2-bromo-5-chloro-3-pyridinol, 2,4,6-trichloro-3-pyridinol and 2,5,6-trichloro-3-pyridinol. Formation conditions and mechanisms of the halopyridinols were explored, and results showed that chlorination promoted their formation compared with chloramination. Halopyridinols were intermediate DBPs that could undergo further transformation/degradation with increasing contact time, disinfectant dose, bromide concentration, and pH. The in vitro cytotoxicity of the halopyridinols was evaluated using human hepatocellular carcinoma cells. Results showed that the cytotoxicity of 3,5,6-trichloro-2-pyridinol was the highest (EC50 = 474.3 μM), which was 13.0 and 1.6 times higher than that of 2-bromo-3-pyridinol (EC50 = 6214.5 μM) and tribromomethane (EC50 = 753.6 μM), respectively.

Control of chlorination disinfection by-products in drinking water by combined nanofiltration process: A case study with trihalomethanes and haloacetic acids

Disinfection by-products (DBPs) are prevalent contaminants in drinking water and are primarily linked to issues regarding water quality. These contaminants have been associated with various adverse health effects. Among different treatment processes, nanofiltration (NF) has demonstrated superior performance in effectively reducing the levels of DBPs compared to conventional processes and ozone-biological activated carbon (O3-BAC) processes. In this experiment, we systematically investigated the performance of three advanced membrane filtration treatment schemes, namely "sand filter + nanofiltration" (SF + NF), "sand filter + ozone-biological activated carbon + nanofiltration" (SF + O3-BAC + NF), and "ultrafiltration + nanofiltration" (UF + NF), in terms of their ability to control disinfection by-product (DBP) formation in treated water, analyzed the source and fate of DBP precursors during chlorination, and elucidated the role of precursor molecular weight distribution during membrane filtration in relation to DBP formation potential (DBPFP). The results indicated that each treatment process reduced DBPFP, as measured by trihalomethane formation potential (THMFP) and haloacetic acid formation potential (HAAFP), with the SF + O3-BAC + NF process being the most effective (14.27 μg/L and 14.88 μg/L), followed by the SF + NF process (21.04 μg/L and 16.29 μg/L) and the UF + NF process (26.26 μg/L and 21.75 μg/L). Tyrosine, tryptophan, and soluble microbial products were identified as the major DBP precursors during chlorination, with their fluorescence intensity decreasing gradually as water treatment progressed. Additionally, while large molecular weight organics (60–100,000 KDa) played a minor role in DBPFP, small molecular weight organics (0.2–5 KDa) were highlighted as key contributors to DBPFP, and medium molecular weight organics (5–60 KDa) could adhere to the membrane surface and reduce DBPFP. Based on these findings, the combined NF process can be reasonably selected for controlling DBP formation, with potential long-term benefits for human health.

Formation potential of disinfection byproducts during chlorination of petroleum hydrocarbon-contaminated drinking water

Recent leaks of underground fuel storage tanks in the Pearl Harbor region have led to direct release of un-weathered petroleum hydrocarbons (PHCs) into drinking water sources, which then directly underwent chlorination disinfection treatment. Since the control of disinfection byproducts (DBPs) traditionally focuses natural organic matters (NOM) from source water and little is known about the interactions between free chlorine and un-weathered PHCs, laboratory chlorination experiments in batch reactors were conducted to determine the formation potential of DBPs during chlorination of PHC-contaminated drinking water. Quantitative analysis of regulated DBPs showed that significant quantities of THM4 (average 3,498 μg/L) and HAA5 (average 355.4 μg/L) compounds were formed as the result of chlorination of un-weathered PHCs. Amongst the regulated DBPs, THM4, which were comprised primarily of chloroform and bromodichloromethane, were more abundant than HAA5. Numerous unregulated DBPs and a large diversity of unidentified potentially halogenated organic compounds were also produced, with the most abundant being 1,1-dichloroacetone, 1,2-dibromo-3-chloropropane, chloropicrin, dichloroacetonitrile, and trichloracetonitrile. Together, the results demonstrated the DBP formation potential when PHC-contaminated water undergoes chlorination treatment. Further studies are needed to confirm the regulated DBP production and health risks under field relevant conditions.

Chlorite and bromate alter the conjugative transfer of antibiotic resistance genes: Co-regulation of oxidative stress and energy supply

The widespread use of disinfectants during the global response to the 2019 coronavirus pandemic has increased the co-occurrence of disinfection byproducts (DBPs) and antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs). Although DBPs pose major threats to public health globally, there is limited knowledge regarding their biological effects on ARGs. This study aimed to investigate the effects of two inorganic DBPs (chlorite and bromate) on the conjugative transfer of RP4 plasmid among Escherichia coli strains at environmentally relevant concentrations. Interestingly, the frequency of conjugative transfer was initially inhibited when the exposure time to chlorite or bromate was less than 24 h. However, this inhibition transformed into promotion when the exposure time was extended to 36 h. Short exposures to chlorite or bromate were shown to impede the electron transport chain, resulting in an ATP shortage and subsequently inhibiting conjugative transfer. Consequently, this stimulates the overproduction of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and activation of the SOS response. Upon prolonged exposure, the resurgent energy supply promoted conjugative transfer. These findings offer novel and valuable insights into the effects of environmentally relevant concentrations of inorganic DBPs on the conjugative transfer of ARGs, thereby providing a theoretical basis for the management of DBPs.

Photothermal assisted space-confined chlorine activation for removal of pharmaceuticals and personal care products coupled with disinfection by-products control

The solar/chlorine process provides an energy-efficient technique for the abatement of some pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) but it is inefficient in degrading PPCPs lacking electron-donating group and suffers high formation of disinfection byproducts (DBPs). In this study, a photothermal approach is developed to promote chlorine activation (photothermal/chlorine) under solar radiation to effectively remove a wide range of structurally diverse PPCPs and to control DBPs formation. To this end, a carbon black (CB) coated 3D porous melamine sponge (MS), namely CB@MS, is developed for the photothermal/chlorine application, achieving significantly enhanced PPCPs degradation with an ibuprofen (IBU) removal rate constant (0.22 min−1) 3.76 times that of the solar/chlorine process (0.058 min−1). Mechanistic investigations revealed that CB@MS confines the thermal energy within the 3D porous structure to achieve high localized heating for boosting PPCPs degradation in the confined space, which is equivalent to the thermal effect achieved by the solar/chlorine process at constant solution temperature of around 70 °C. Moreover, the photothermal/chlorine process reduces TOCl and DBPs formation by 77.6 % and 67.5 %, ascribed to adsorption by CB@MS, less chlorine exposure, and altered PPCPs degradation pathways. The broad applicability in various water matrices, and good reusability and stability of the photothermal/chlorine system also ensure its excellent practicality. This study offers in-depth mechanisms and practical insights into the development of a novel photothermal/chlorine process for PPCPs abatement and DBPs control.

Detection, Generation, and Control of Disinfection By-products of Reclaimed Water

At the time when water resources are in short supply,wastewater recycling is both an important environmental protection strategy and also a resource strategy. Disinfection is essential to ensure the biological safety of reclaimed wastewater by killing pathogens and preventing the spread of waterborne diseases. However,the disinfection process could inevitably produce toxic disinfection byproducts(DBPs)due to the reaction between the disinfectants and wastewater organic matters. Regarding wastewater DBPs,this study reviewed their identification methods,formation conditions(including precursors,the effect of water quality,disinfectants,and operational parameters on DBPs),and control methods(including source control,process control,and end control). In addition,future research trends of wastewater DBPs were discussed.

Adaptation of water treatment processes for controlling disinfection byproducts in supply waters to compensate the effects of climate change

The water treatment processes (WTPs) need adaptation to climate change. Safe water supply is being challenged by the deteriorating trend of water quality, which can increase disinfection byproducts and impose cancer/non-cancer risks to humans. In this study, implications of climate change and water quality deterioration on the formation of trihalomethanes' (THMs), and risks from 2020 to 2050 were predicted. In 2020, averages of temperature, dissolved organic carbon (DOC) and pH in source waters from Newfoundland (Canada) were 7.92 °C, 6.40 mg/L and 6.53 respectively, which were predicted to be 9.95 °C, 8.56 mg/L and 7.65, respectively in 2050. Three scenarios of free chlorine and bromide ions [(2.0 mg/L, 10 μg/L), (3.5 mg/L, 25 μg/L) and (5.0 mg/L, 50 μg/L)] were simulated. Two models (Model-1 and Model-2) were applied for predicting THMs, risks and allowable DOC for target risks. For Model-1, DOC in 2030, 2040 and 2050 were predicted to be in the ranges of 4.53–4.92, 3.32–3.84 and 2.49–3.06 mg/L respectively to impose similar risks as of 2020. For Model-2, DOC ranges were 5.02–5.95, 3.92–4.99 and 3.60–4.80 mg/L respectively. The lower ranges of DOC in future years were due to increased effects of pH and temperature. To maintain the risks of 2050 to the levels of 2020, WTPs need to reduce DOC by 64.3–70.9 % (Model-1) and 43.8–57.9 % (Model-2). The granular activated carbon filtration is widely used for reducing DOC, which can be further assessed for extensive applications in the WTPs.

Disinfection by-products control in wastewater effluents treated with ozone and biological activated carbon followed by UV/Chlor(am)ine processes

Sequential utilization of ozone (O3) and biological activated carbon (BAC) followed by UV/chlor(am)ine advanced oxidation process (AOP) has drawn attention in water reuse. However, the formation of disinfection by-products (DBPs) in this process is less evaluated. This study investigated the DBP formation and the relevant toxicity during the O3-BAC-UV/chlor(am)ine treatment of sand-filtered municipal secondary effluent. DBP formation in UV/chlorine and UV/dichloramine (NHCl2) processes were compared, where the impact of key operational parameters (e.g., UV wavelength, pH) on DBP formation were comprehensively evaluated. O3-BAC significantly reduced DBP formation potential (DBPFP) (58.2 %). Compared to UV/chlorine AOP, UV/NHCl2 AOP reduced DBP formation by 29.7 % in short-time treatment, while insignificantly impacting on DBPFP (p > 0.05). UV/NHCl2 AOP also led to lower calculated cytotoxicity (67.7 %) and genotoxicity (55.9 %) of DBPs compared to UV/chlorine AOP. Compared to 254 nm UV light, the utilization of 285 nm UV light decreased the formation of DBPs in wastewater treated with the UV/chlorine AOP and UV/NHCl2 AOP by 31.3 % and 19.2 %, respectively. However, the cytotoxicity and genotoxicity in UV/NHCl2 AOP using 285 nm UV light increased by 83.4 % and 58.5 %, respectively, compared to 254 nm. The concentration of DBPs formed in the UV/NHCl2 AOP at pH 8 was 54.3 % lower than that at pH 7, suggesting a better control of DBPs at alkaline condition. In the presence of bromide, UV/NHCl2 AOP tended to generate more brominated DBPs than UV/chlorine AOP. Overall, UV/NHCl2 AOP resulted in lower concentration and toxicity of DBPs compared to UV/chlorine AOP.

Formation and control of disinfection by-products during the trichloroisocyanuric acid disinfection in swimming pool water

The increasing demand for trichloroisocyanuric acid (TCCA) in swimming pool disinfection highlights the need to evaluate its applicability in terms of disinfection by-product (DBP) formation. Nevertheless, there is limited understanding of DBP formation and control during TCCA disinfection, particularly concerning the effects of various management parameters. This study aimed to fill this knowledge gap by comprehensively investigating DBP formation during TCCA chlorination, with a particular focus on assessing the contribution and interaction of influencing factors using Box-Behnken Design and response surface methodology. Results indicated that the concentrations of trichloroacetaldehyde, chloroform, dichloroacetic acid, trichloroacetic acid, and dichloroacetonitrile produced by TCCA disinfectant were 42.5%, 74.0%, 48.1%, 94.7% and 42.6% of those by the conventional sodium hypochlorite disinfectant, respectively. Temperature exhibited the most significant impact on chloroform formation (49%), while pH played a major role in trichloroacetaldehyde formation (44%). pH2 emerged as the primary contributor to dichloroacetic acid (90%) and trichloroacetic acid (93%) formation. The optimum water quality conditions were determined based on the minimum total DBPs (pH = 7.32, Temperature = 23.7 °C, [Cl−] = 437 mg/L). Chlorine dosage and contact time exhibited greater influence than precursor concentration on chloroform, dichloroacetonitrile, trichloroacetaldehyde, trichloroacetic acid, and total DBPs. Although the interaction between water quality parameters was weak, the interaction between disinfection operating parameters demonstrated substantial effects on DBP formation (8.56–19.06%). Furthermore, the DBP predictive models during TCCA disinfection were provided for the first time, which provides valuable insights for DBP control and early warning programs.

The formation and control of disinfection by-products by two-step chlorination for sewage effluent: Role of organic chloramine decomposition among molecular weight fractions

With the increasing discharge of wastewater effluent to natural waters, there is an urgent need to achieve both pathogenic microorganism inactivation and the mitigation of disinfection by-products (DBPs) during disinfection. Studies have shown that two-step chlorination, which injected chlorine disinfectant by splitting into two portions, was more effective in inactivating Escherichia coli than one-step chlorination under same total chlorine consumption and contact time. In this study, we observed a substantial reduction in the formation of five classes of CX3R-type DBPs, especially highly toxic haloacetonitriles (HANs), during two-step chlorination of secondary effluent when the mass ratio of chlorine-to-nitrogen exceeded 2. The shift of different chlorine species (free chlorine, monochloramine and organic chloramine) verified the decomposition of organic chloramines into monochloramine during second chlorination stage. Notably, the organic chloramines generated from the low molecular weight (< 1 kDa) fraction of dissolved organic nitrogen in effluent organic matter tended to decompose during the second step chlorination leading to the mitigation of HAN formation. Furthermore, the microbiological analysis showed that two-step chlorinated effluent had a slightly lower ecological impact on surface water compared to one-step chlorination. This work provided more information about the two-step chlorination for secondary effluent, especially in terms of organic chloramine transformation and HAN control.

Synergistic disinfection effects and reduction of disinfection by-products in water treatment using magnetic quaternized cyclodextrin polymer combined with chorine disinfection process

Disinfection is vital in ensuring water safety. However, the traditional chlorine disinfection process is prone to producing toxic and harmful disinfection by-products (DBPs). The combination of quaternary ammonium polymer and the chlorine disinfection process can solve this shortcoming. Currently, research on the control of DBPs through the combined process is not systematic and the control effect between reducing the dosage of disinfectants and DBPs remains to be studied. Quaternized cyclodextrin polymers have attracted increasing attention due to their excellent adsorption and antibacterial properties, but their synergistic effect with chlorine disinfection is still unclear. In this study, a magnetic quaternized cyclodextrin polymer (MQCDP) is synthesized in an ionic liquid green system, and a combined process of MQCDP treatment and chlorine disinfection is established. The disinfection performance of the combined process on the actual water body along with its reducing effect on the amount of chlorine disinfectant as well as the trihalomethanes (THMs) and haloacetic acids (HAAs) DBPs are explored. MQCDP has a porous structure with a specific surface area of 825 m2 g−1 and is easily magnetically separated. MQCDP can remove most of the natural organic matter (UV254 absorbance decreased by 97 %) in the water at the dosage of 1 g L−1 and kill bacteria with a sterilization rate of 85 %. Compared with disinfection using chlorine alone, the combined process has higher disinfection efficiency and significantly reduces the amount of disinfectant used. A concentration of 5 mg/L of NaClO was needed to meet the standard by chlorine disinfectant alone, while only 2 mg/L of NaClO can meet the standard for the combined process, indicating 60 % of the chlorine demand was reduced. More importantly, the combined process can significantly reduce the generation potential of DBPs. When 10 mg/L of NaClO is added, the THMs and HAAs generated by the combined process decreased by 65 % and 34 %, respectively, compared with the levels produced by single chlorine disinfection. The combined process can reduce the dosage of chlorine disinfectant and MQCDP can adsorb humic acid DBP precursors in raw water, thus lowering the generation of DBPs during disinfection. In summary, MQCDP has excellent separation and antibacterial ability, and its synergistic effects combined with the chlorine disinfection process are of great significance for controlling the amount of disinfectant and the formation potential of DBPs, which has potential applications in actual water treatment.

Comparative effectiveness of sequential and synergistic (VUV/)UV and chlorine disinfection on DBPs and humic acid reduction

The widespread use of chlorine during disinfection has led to the problems of disinfection by-products (DBPs). Recently, the combination of ultraviolet (UV, 254 nm) and vacuum ultraviolet (VUV, 185 nm) with chlorine has been considered a promising strategy to mitigate the formation of DBPs. This study systematically evaluated the efficacy of six different disinfection methods in abating humic acid (HA), a common precursor of DBPs (UV-Chlorine, VUV/UV-Chlorine, Chlorine-UV, Chlorine-VUV/UV, UV/Chlorine, and VUV/UV/Chlorine). Under 40 mJ/cm2 UV fluence and 3 mg/L chlorine dose, the synergistic processes yielded DBP levels below 20 μg/L, whereas sequential disinfection resulted in DBP levels exceeding 100 μg/L. Additionally, there was no significant difference in the formation of DBPs between the two methods of chlorination followed by irradiation. However, for irradiation followed by chlorination, the addition of VUV led to an increase of 50 μg/L in trihalomethanes (THMs). As the irradiation time increased, the inclusion of VUV demonstrated enhanced control of DBP levels in the sequential disinfection process. Moreover, compared to UV/Chlorine, at 13 mg/L chlorine dose in VUV/UV/Chlorine process, the inclusion of VUV expedited the appearance of peak DBPs by two minutes and reduced the peak value by 25.6 %, but the DBP yield was 12.9 times higher than that at a chlorine dose of 3 mg/L. This study, comparing six combination disinfection methods, will provide deeper insights into precursor abatement and DBP control during drinking water disinfection.

Chemical-free vacuum ultraviolet irradiation as ultrafiltration membrane pretreatment technique: Performance, mechanisms and DBPs formation

Membrane fouling induced by natural organic matter (NOM) has seriously affected the further extensive application of ultrafiltration (UF). Herein, a simple, green and robust vacuum ultraviolet (VUV) technology was adopted as pretreatment before UF and ultraviolet (UV) technology was used for comparison. The results showed that control effect of VUV pretreatment on membrane fouling was better than that of UV pretreatment, as evidenced by the increase of normalized flux from 0.27 to 0.38 and 0.73 after 30 min UV or VUV pretreatment, respectively. This is related to the fact that VUV pretreatment exhibited stronger NOM degradation ability than UV pretreatment owing to the formation of HO•. The steady-state concentration of HO• was calculated as 3.04 × 10−13 M and the cumulative exposure of HO• reached 5.52 × 10−10 M s after 30 min of VUV irradiation. And the second-order rate constant between NOM and HO• was determined as 1.36 × 104 L mg−1 s−1. Furthermore, fluorescence EEM could be applied to predict membrane fouling induced by humic-enriched water. Standard blocking and cake filtration were major fouling mechanisms. Moreover, extension of UV pretreatment time increased the disinfection by-products (DBPs) formation, the DBPs concentration was enhanced from 322.36 to 1187.80 μg/L after 210 min pretreatment. However, VUV pretreatment for 150 min reduced DBPs content to 282.57 μg/L, and DBPs content continued to decrease with the extension of pretreatment time, revealing that VUV pretreatment achieved effective control of DBPs. The variation trend of cytotoxicity and health risk of DBPs was similar to that of DBPs concentration. In summary, VUV pretreatment exhibited excellent effect on membrane fouling alleviation, NOM degradation and DBPs control under a certain pretreatment time.