Natural Biodiversity Conservation Research Articles

Regeneración del hábitat en áreas con presencia documentada de especies amenazadas. Una contribución a la conservación asociada a la operación del proyecto Central Hidroeléctrica Miel I, cordillera Central de Colombia, departamento de Caldas

We document conservation contributions of La Miel 1 hydropower station, based upon 18.763 biological registers, of 1.070 species and changes in land cover/use (1991 and 2011) in ca. 20.000 ha. 17 - 23 species with some degree of threat were reported, especially some with small distributional ranges threatened by deforestation. For all terrestrial species the project has allowed habitat improvement, since forest cover changed from 188 ha (6%) to 2.527,3 (89.5%) during the last 20 years. The positive effect is also revealed with a change from many small habitat fragments ( 4.000 ha). Although conservation of biodiversity was not an explicit environmental target, the fact that Miel I have promoted biological research, allows to document its current contributions to species conservation. It is thus proposed that hydropower enterprises may, through habitat protection, restoration and research, join national biodiversity conservation strategies; especially for those projects located in areas where conservation actions are insufficient.

Plant management and biodiversity conservation in Náhuatl homegardens of the Tehuacán Valley, Mexico

BackgroundThe Tehuacán Valley is one of the areas of Mesoamerica with the oldest history of plant management. Homegardens are among the most ancient management systems that currently provide economic benefits to people and are reservoirs of native biodiversity. Previous studies estimated that 30% of the plant richness of homegardens of the region are native plant species from wild populations. We studied in Náhuatl communities the proportion of native plant species maintained in homegardens, hypothesizing to find a proportion similar to that estimated at regional level, mainly plant resources maintained for edible, medicinal and ornamental purposes.MethodsWe analysed the composition of plant species of homegardens and their similarity with surrounding Cloud Forest (CF), Tropical Rainforest (TRF), Tropical Dry forest (TDF), and Thorn-Scrub Forest (TSF). We determined density, frequency and biomass of plant species composing homegardens and forests through vegetation sampling of a total of 30 homegardens and nine plots of forests, and documented ethnobotanical information on use, management, and economic benefits from plants maintained in homegardens.ResultsA total of 281 plant species was recorded with 12 use categories, 115 ornamental, 92 edible, and 50 medicinal plant species. We recorded 49.8 ± 23.2 (average ± S.D.) woody plant species (shrubs and trees) per homegarden. In total, 34% species are native to the Tehuacán Valley and nearly 16% are components of the surrounding forests. A total of 176 species were cultivated through seeds, vegetative propagules or transplanted entire individual plants, 71 tolerated, and 23 enhanced. The highest species richness and diversity were recorded in homegardens from the CF zone (199 species), followed by those from the TRF (157) and those from the TDF (141) zones.ConclusionHomegardens provide a high diversity of resources for subsistence of local households and significantly contribute to conservation of native biodiversity. The highest diversity was recorded in homegardens where the neighbouring forests had the least diversity, suggesting that management of homegardens aims at compensating scarcity of naturally available plant resources. Cultivated species were markedly more abundant than plants under other management forms. Diversity harboured and management techniques make homegardens keystones in strategies for regional biodiversity conservation.

Cultural and socio-economic perspectives of the conservation of Asanting Ibiono Sacred Forests in Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria

Culturally, sacred forests have been an integral part of many Africa traditional societies for centuries. For decades, these traditions have encouraged community driven nature conservation attitudes and have ensured the conservation of native biodiversity, supplying non-timber forest products (NTFPs), supporting ecological, religious, cultural and socio-economic functions. This long standing tradition is on the decline today as a result of development, population pressure and changes in religious beliefs. This study examines the cultural and socio-economic variables that facilitate the conservation of the sacred forests in Asanting village in Ibiono Ibom Local Government Area (LGA) in Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria. Seventy five (75) respondents were selected for this study using snowball sampling and stratified sampling techniques, and were used to collect the quantitative and qualitative data through a questionnaire survey and ethnographic research approaches. Descriptive statistical techniques were used to analyze the primary data collected. The results show that 73% were male and 27% were female, 60% were literate while 40% were traders and 33% were farmers with 4% less than 30 years old. All the respondents belong to a single religious group (Christianity). Majority of the respondents (79%) had favorable attitudes towards the concept of conservation of the fragments of sacred forest through cultural practices. Fourteen percent of the respondents agreed that they need to conserve the sacred forest because of its regulating, provisioning, social/cultural and supporting services. Moreover, a large proportion of the respondents (71%) generate income from various activities carried out within the sacred forests, thus, contributing to their livelihoods economy. However, changes in religious beliefs and the need for development had a negative effect on the conservation attitude of majority of the respondents, leading to the destruction of two sacred forests in the village. The integration of the traditional knowledge system in enlightenment campaign and application of community based approach toward conservation issues will therefore ensure a better conservation attitude in the community and Nigeria in general. Key words: Sacred forest, conservation, biodiversity, cultural and religious beliefs, traditional knowledge, Asanting Ibiono, Nigeria.

Key areas for conserving United States' biodiversity likely threatened by future land use change

A major challenge for biodiversity conservation is to mitigate the effects of future environmental change, such as land use, in important areas for biodiversity conservation. In the United States, recent conservation efforts by The Nature Conservancy and partners have identified and mapped the nation's Areas of Biodiversity Significance (ABS), representing the best remaining habitats for the full diversity of native species and ecosystems, and thus the most important and suitable areas for the conservation of native biodiversity. Our goal was to understand the potential consequences of future land use changes on the nation's ABS, and identify regions where ABS are likely to be threatened due to future land use expansion. For this, we used an econometric‐based model to forecast land use changes between 2001 and 2051 across the conterminous U.S. under alternative scenarios of future land use change. Our model predicted a total of ∼100,000 to 160,000 km2 of natural habitats within ABS replaced by urban, crop and pasture expansion depending on the scenario (5% to 8% habitat loss across the conterminous U.S.), with some regions experiencing up to 30% habitat loss. The majority of the most threatened ABS were located in the Eastern half of the country. Results for our different scenarios were generally fairly consistent, but some regions exhibited notable difference from the baseline under specific policies and changes in commodity prices. Overall, our study suggests that key areas for conserving United States' biodiversity are likely threatened by future land use change, and efforts trying to preserve the ecological and conservation values of ABS will need to address the potential intensification of human land uses.

Actions, progress and prospects in implementation of the Convention on Biological Diversity during the past 20 years in China

The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) was adopted by United Nations Conference of Environment and Development (UNCED) in June 1992 as a milestone event. During the past 20 years, China established the national coordination mechanisms for CBD implementation in 1993, conducted a country study for biodiversity conservation during 1995-1997, formulated China National Biodiversity Conservation Strategy and Action Plan during 2007-2010, founded the National Committee for Biodiversity Conservation in 2011, and, aiming to CBD's objectives, implemented a lot of researches and actions for biodiversity con- servation, including: protection of ecosystems such as forests, grasslands, deserts, wetlands and marine areas; investigations, inventory and databases for species; increased protection of rare and endangered species; con- trol of alien invasive species; and risk assessment for genetically-modified organisms. Challenges to biodi- versity conservation include, establishment of biodiversity monitoring system, in situ conservation, access and benefit sharing of genetic resources, and protection and application of traditional knowledge. Lastly, we report potential research topics for biodiversity conservation.

The first record of living “Fossil” species (Laonestes aenigmanus) in Phong Nha - Ke Bang, Quang Binh province, Vietnam

Laotian Rock Rat Laonastes aenigmamus was first discovered in Hin Nammo NBCA, Khammoune Province, Lao PDR in 2005 by Jenkins et al. (2005). This species was later recognized as living species of the ancient family Diatomyidae which was thought to be extinct since the Miocene, about 11 millions years ago. Conservation of this species is recommended at the highest priority not only due to its limited range but also due to its status as the single living representative of an ancient family. During biodiversity survey on small mammals in Phong Nha - Ke Bang National Park, Quang Binh Province, Central Vietnam, we obtained 4 specimens of un-usual small animals in Thuong Hoa Commune, Minh Hoa District, Quang Binh Province. Based on analysis of appearance, body measurements and skull charasters of these specimens, we confirm that they belong to Laotian Rock Rat Laonastes aenigmamus which was described in 2005 based on specimens collected in Hin Nam No National Biodiversity Conservation Area, Khammoune Province, Lao PDR. Morphological features and some ecological attributes of this species are provided. This species is proposed to be included in the Checklist of wild mammal species of Vietnam under name as Truong son Rat (Annamite Rat). Main threats to Annamite Rat in Vietnam are wildlife hunting/snaring and forest destruction. Snaring small mammals for food and for trade is common habit of local residents in Thuong Hoa and nearby communes. Urgent conservation actions and further studies on population genetics and ecology of this elusive species are recommended.

An Economic View to Forage and Fodder Production in Eastern India

The mixed crop–livestock systems of India are underpinned by the crop residues which contribute on an average 40–60% of the total dry matter intake per livestock unit. There is however considerable regional variation in the dominant type of crop residue: rice and wheat straws in irrigated regions compared to coarse cereal straws and hay from leguminous crops in the drier, semi-arid regions. This paper synthesizes a series of recent studies on the role and importance of crop residues and farmers’ perceptions of fodder quantity and quality in coarse cereal and groundnut based feeding systems. Crop improvement programs for sorghum, pearl millet and groundnut have traditionally focused on grain/pod yield improvement, pest and water stress tolerance. Livestock rearing plays a significant role in the economy of the Indian people. Crop residues and pastures/grasslands are the major feed resource for this activity. Forages can be a simple answer to soil erosion and decline in organic matter and fertility, a problem caused by modern cultivation and fallowing practices on much of the farmland the world over. Keeping in view the constraints in fodder production and in order to overcome the gap between demand and supply, the emphasis need to be given on several steps for augmenting the fodder production. Existing resource utilization pattern needs to be studied in totality according to a system approach. Fodder production is a component of the farming system and efforts need to be made for increasing the forage production in a farming system approach. The holistic approach of integrated resource management will be based on maintaining the fragile balance between productivity functions and conservation practices for ecological sustainability. Forage production must be taken up as a first management goal and 25% of the forest area should be put under trees with regulated accessibility to the farmers. It is suggested to grow forage grasses and fodder trees along village roads and panchayat lands, and on terrace risers/bunds - a non competitive land use system. Conservation of native biodiversity for future improvement along with breeding biotic, abiotic, stress tolerant cultivars of forage species suitable for area not used under arable agriculture can be possible answer to chronic fodder shortages. Use of participatory techniques to identify the problems and to carry out the improvement programme along with In-depth studies on migratory graziers, forage based agroforestry systems and controlled grazing to maintain the productivity of pasture (grazing should be allowed as per carrying capacity) are some other solutions to this problem.

“My garden is an expression of me”: Exploring householders' relationships with their gardens

Domestic gardens offer immense potential as sites for native biodiversity conservation. In urban areas they often comprise the largest land use, thus presenting an accessible and immediate way for urban dwellers to connect with nature and to support and enhance native biodiversity. This paper presents findings from a study of 55 domestic gardens undertaken in Dunedin, New Zealand, which explores householders' relationships with their gardens. The study data was derived from two interviews with householders, two photo exercises (approximately a year apart), together with a number of biological studies of the gardens. Gardens proved to be very important for our householders; for physical and mental health, as an expression of ownership and identity, as sites for social relationships, for connecting with nature and as site of domestic produce production. Householders' connections with nature were idiosyncratic, multifaceted and exhibited in ways that are more complex and varied than those usually considered by those working in the natural sciences and indeed biophilia supporters. We emphasize the importance of the people side of nature in seeking to build and support positive ecological change in the urban environment and the value of combining natural and social science approaches.

Status and trends in the alien flora of Corsica

This article summarizes and analyses some of the data published in Flora Corsica (Jeanmonod & Gamisans, 2007) in order to characterize the alien vascular plant flora of the island. The data analysed focus on different aspects of the alien flora such as diversity (species richness), abundance, life‐forms, vegetation belts, habitats and biogeographical origins. The results show that the alien species richness is currently high, representing 16.5% of the total flora, amongst which 37.5% are naturalized. The penetration of this flora occurs mainly at lower altitudes, and is still weak or absent in the higher altitude vegetation belts whereas it has increased over time within natural closed habitats. Over the last 11 years, the species richness of xenophytes has increased by 18.1%, which corresponds to an increase of 23.0% of the naturalized plants. Moreover, 24.8% of the alien taxa have increased in abundance. A scenario highlighting the trends of the introduced flora, and that includes issues of native biodiversity conservation, is proposed based on the results. The special case of invasive species is also considered, and their exponential increase on Corsica is highlighted. Other aspects of the alien flora, such as its taxonomic spectrum and biogeographical origins, are also analysed and are, whenever possible, compared with those of other geographical regions, particularly from the Mediterranean (Sardinia, Balearic Islands) and Continental Europe.

Is water the key? Dingo management, intraguild interactions and predator distribution around water points in arid Australia

Context Predators are major beneficiaries of artificial water points in arid environments, yet little is known of the effects of water on the distribution of many sympatric species. Intraguild interactions around water points in arid Australia may play a significant role in structuring mammalian predator assemblages and influence spatial predation on some native prey species. Aims We examined how management of an apex predator, the dingo (Canis lupus dingo), influenced the distribution of two introduced mesopredators, foxes (Vulpes vulpes) and feral cats (Felis catus), around water points in arid Australia. Methods The spatial activity of dingoes, foxes and feral cats was assessed at five study sites with varying dingo management regimes. Sampling of predator activity was monitored using track counts at measured proximity to water points. Key results At sites where dingoes were uncontrolled, foxes were less likely to be found within 5 km of water points; conversely, where dingoes were controlled using exclusion fencing, fox activity was highest near water. Where dingo activity was reduced using 1080 baiting, feral cats were found closer to water. Conclusions These patterns suggest that the presence of dingoes instigates avoidance behaviour by foxes and feral cats, and through doing so may limit the use of artificial waters by these mesopredators. Through limiting access to such an essential resource in arid environments, dingoes may reduce mesopredator populations and minimise their impact on native prey. Implications For the conservation of native biodiversity, it may prove beneficial to maintain intact dingo populations due to their suppressive effect on mesopredators.

Forest land use change at Trans-Boundary Laos-China Biodiversity Conservation Area

This paper analyzed forest land use change in Trans-Boundary Laos-China Biodiversity Conservation Area which is called Namha National Biodiversity Conservation Areas (Namha NBCAs), with 1992 and 2002 TM (ETM). Based on GIS and statistical methods, the intensity, state index of land use change and transfer matrix were used to study spatiotemporal land use change in the region. The results showed that the area of forest land decreased greatly, also the area of bamboo and grassland decreased. The other way round, the area of unstocked forest, slash and burn and rice paddy land increased. As a whole, the intensity of forest land change was higher, but others were lower. From the transfer matrix, most of the forest land changed into unstocked forest and urban area, some to slash and burn. The grassland and bamboo were mainly transferred to forest and unstocked forest. The unstocked forest land mostly came from forest land and grassland. It was showed there were three main causes of the land use change namely: opium poppy cultivation, rubber plantation and also ecotourism activities and finally some policies were developed in order to address the land use change in the study areas.

IFAS Assessment of Non-native Plants in Florida's Natural Areas: Status Assessment

Revised! SS-AGR-225, a 14-page publication by Alison M. Fox, Doria R. Gordon, Joan A. Dusky, Linda Tyson, Randall K. Stocker, Kenneth A. Langeland, and Aimee L. Cooper, is the component of the IFAS Assessment that provides evaluations of plants that currently occur within Florida. designed to identify those non-native plant species that are invasive in areas of Florida where designated management objectives include the conservation of native biodiversity. Includes references. Published by the UF Department of Agronomy, April 2009.

Zum Vorkommen, zur Ökologie und Morphologie von Kha-nyou, der Laos-Felsenratte ( Laonastes aenigmamus)

The Kha-nyou or Lao rock rat ( Laonastes aenigmamus) was described as a new species, genus and family ( Laonastidae) (Jenkins et al., 2005). But morphological comparison with the family Diatomydae, a family solely based on fossil material, suggested Laonastes should be placed within this family (Dawson et al., 2006; Huchon et al., 2007). Thus Laonastes would represent the only living member of this family. Molecular genetic investigation placed Laonastes in a sister lineage to the Gundis ( Ctenodactylidae) (Huchon et al., 2007). Several morphological similarities support this phylogenetic position. A new record of the species north of the known distribution in Laos was found for the Nam Kading National Biodiversity Conservation Area. The food of wild Kha-nyou includes the Euphorbie Euphorbia antiquorum, which contains caustic and skin irritating terpenester. In captivity Kha–nyou is strictly herbivorous, and doesn’t feed on offered insects, insect larvae or worms.

Forest Management and Biodiversity Conservation Based on Natural Ecosystem Dynamics in Northern Europe: The Complexity Challenge

Recent research in northern Europe has revised many long-held conceptions of the complexity of forest ecosystems and their natural structure and dynamics. The unveiling of the picture of natural characteristics of forest ecosystem structure and dynamics reveals much more diversity than its traditional complement, highlighting the importance of non-stand-replacing disturbances and the associated heterogeneous and dynamic stand and landscape structures. This increasing detail is a reflection of a fundamental change in the ecological understanding of forests as complex ecosystems. In particular, the generalization that the boreal forest is regulated by fierce stand-replacing disturbances, leading to the dominance of even-aged stand successions, has been disproved. However, this misconception has, until now, been repeated and used to legitimize the dominant practice of clear-cutting as a nature-based way to manage the forest. The practical conclusion of this review paper is that the dominating forest management model in North European boreal forests, which is based on the clear-cut harvesting of timber and growing of even-aged stands, is in contradiction with the variable and complex characteristics of the disturbance-succession cycle observed in naturally dynamic forests with negligible human impact. As a consequence, the structural variation of the boreal forest under management has been grossly truncated compared with its natural range. Because of this, and due to the scarcity of protection areas in many regions of northern Europe, it is not likely that the conservation of native biodiversity and ecological sustainability will be attained, assuming that the model of forest management remains unchanged. Thus, there is a strong incentive for change in the prevailing forest management model toward one that is based on natural ecosystem dynamics and an understanding of forests as complex systems.

Do urban areas act as foci for the spread of alien plant species? An assessment of temporal trends in the UK

ABSTRACTAim Given that urban landscapes often act as a point of entry for many non‐native species and urban development continues to increase as the human population rapidly expands, an understanding of the interaction between urbanization and non‐native plant species is important both in the control of potentially invasive species and in the conservation of native biodiversity. We investigated the spatial and temporal relationship between urban land cover and the distribution of non‐native species in Britain using two floristic data sets collected at two different time periods: 1987–88 and 2003–04.Location UK.Methods Using floristic data collected by the Botanical Society of the British Isles in 1987–88 (Monitoring Scheme) and 2003–04 (Local Change) in conjunction with habitat data obtained from the Land Cover Map of the UK, we conducted multiple regression analyses both within and between years on both groups of species (natives, neophytes and archaeophytes) and individual species.Results Neophytes (alien species introduced after 1500) were very strongly associated with urban land cover in both time periods and do not appear to be spreading out of urban habitats into the wider countryside. Archaeophytes (alien species introduced before 1500), however, showed a strong association with urban habitats in the earlier 1988 data set but no longer showed this association in the 2004 data set. Analysis at the individual species level showed that a large percentage of alien plant species, particularly archaeophytes, were not strongly associated with urban land cover or were negatively associated with such habitats.Main conclusions Our results suggest that there has been a reduction in the urban association of archaeophytes that is likely to have resulted from the recovery of archaeophytes associated with non‐urban (especially arable) habitats, following their decline in mid‐20th century, rather than from the movement of aliens into the wider countryside from urban habitats.

Plant community ecology of Pinus sylvestris, an extirpated species reintroduced to Ireland

Plantation forests can make a significant contribution to the conservation of native biodiversity, especially where native forest cover is low. Ireland is used as a case study to explore the contribution to biodiversity made by stands of Pinus sylvestris (Scots pine), a reintroduced species. Despite its disputed native status, P. sylvestris is being widely planted in semi-natural habitats in Ireland. The associated vegetation communities have not previously been described and their conservation value is unknown. Baseline information is needed to inform conservation and forest management strategies. Botanical surveys were carried out at 20 plots of P. sylvestris-dominated woodland and scrub throughout the Republic of Ireland. Vegetation, structural and environmental data were recorded. Data were analysed using non-parametric and multivariate statistical techniques and a synoptic table was prepared. P. sylvestris was found to be a non-specialist in terms of its environmental tolerances. β diversity among plots was high while α diversity within plots was low to moderate. The plots surveyed contained 14.2% of the Irish native flora. There was a low level of constancy of species. Four reasonably well defined vegetation communities were identified. Soil pH, altitude and slope had important roles in partitioning these vegetation types and soil pH was positively correlated with species richness. P. sylvestris is well established, well integrated and naturalising in Irish semi-natural habitats. Some of the associated vegetation communities corresponded to habitats of international conservation importance. This research demonstrates that stands of P. sylvestris represent an important resource for Ireland’s native botanical and habitat diversity.

A New Species of the Genus Pithemera (Oligochaeta: Megascolecidae) from Namat NBCA, Laos

As a result of a taxonomic study on the earthworm material collected from Namat National Biodiversity Conservation Area (NBCA), Hoaphane Province, Laos, a new species, Pithemera viengthongensis sp. novo is described from near Namchong river, Viengthong district. The new species bearing two pairs of spermathecal pores in 7/8, 8/9 is not assignable to any other species of Pithemera as defined by Sims and Easton (1972). In the new species, the male pore region has kidney-shaped pads extending between XVII-19/20, the male pores and spermathecal pores are 0.31 circumference apart, and genital papillae are lacking. The ventral view of anterior body region and the spermathecae are illustrated.

Assessing the impact of local habitat variables and landscape context on riparian birds in agricultural, urbanized, and native landscapes

Large tracts of natural habitat are being replaced by agriculture and urban sprawl in Mediterranean regions worldwide. We have limited knowledge about the effects of human activities on native species in these landscapes and which, if any, management practices might enhance the conservation of native biodiversity within them. Through a citizen volunteer bird-monitoring project, we compared bird abundance and species richness in northern Californian riparian zones surrounded by vineyards, urban areas, and natural areas. We assessed both local and landscape-level variables that may enhance native bird diversity in each land use type. We also demonstrate a new statistical approach, generalized estimating equations, to analyze highly variable data, such as that collected by volunteers. Avian abundance was highly correlated with both landscape context and local habitat variables, while avian richness was correlated with local habitat variables, specifically shrub richness, and percent of tree cover. In particular, shrub species richness has a strong positive correlation with riparian-preferring bird species. This suggests that active local management of riparian zones in human-dominated landscapes can increase our ability to retain native bird species in these areas.

How do habitat variability and management regime shape the spatial heterogeneity of birds within a large Mediterranean urban park?

Large urban parks can support a diverse bird community. However, the effects of variability among habitats and of park management on bird assemblages are poorly understood. We studied bird communities within the Yarkon Park, Tel Aviv, the largest urban park in Israel. We examined species richness, abundance and community composition across 20 locations that differ in levels of park management to identify habitat variables responsible for variation in bird richness and composition. Of 91 recorded bird species, 13 were aliens (14%), 4 were urban exploiters (4%), 54 were urban adapters (60%) and 20 were migrants (22%). Management had a significant effect on native bird richness and bird community structure varied among areas with different management regimes. Species richness of all the above species’ groups was lowest in intensively managed areas. Areas with intermediate levels of management had higher or equal richness compared to unmanaged areas. The majority of urban exploiters were found at all locations within the park reaching their highest abundances in intensively managed areas. Species richness of alien birds did not vary across levels of management. Bird species richness was negatively associated with lawn cover and with distance from nearest water source and was positively associated with the number of woody plant species. We suggest that urban parks should be designed such that the heterogeneity of native vegetation is preserved, if we aim to maintain native bird species diversity and minimize urban exploiter and alien species. When lightly managed or unmanaged, urban parks can retain large remnants of sub-natural habitats and can serve as important contributors to the conservation of native biodiversity within a large urban metropolis.

Analyses of growth rings of Pinus merkusii from Lao P.D.R.

We present the first tree-ring chronologies of total ring width (RW), earlywood width (EWW) and latewood width (LWW) from Lao P.D.R., from 52 core samples from 26 mature pines ( Pinus merkusii Junghuhn & De Vriese), from Phu Khao Khouay National Biodiversity Conservation Area northeast of Vientiane. The chronologies span the 262-year period from 1743 to 2005 a. d., and at least for RW and LWW exhibit strong signal strength back to the late 1700s. Correlation analyses with climate data from a composite of 13 nearby stations in Thailand indicate statistically significant ( p ≤ 0.05) negative correlation with prior year June rainfall, and positive correlation with August–September maximum temperature. Annual radial increment is also significantly negatively correlated with percent cloud fraction, leading us to believe that growth may be adversely affected by light availability (i.e., reduced growth during periods of low light) and not positively affected by high temperature per se. Spatial correlation with sea surface temperature fields highlights the influence of the central and eastern tropical Pacific Ocean, particularly for EWW. Wavelet analysis reveals multi-decadal scale variability between 30 and 60 years for all three indices, and higher frequency power for RW and LWW between 2 and 7 years, the typical range of ENSO. While RW, EWW and LWW all appear to respond to monsoon climate, we highlight the need for far more detailed ecophysiological response studies for this species, particularly with regard to the role of light availability and temperature during the peak monsoon.