Communal Areas Of Zimbabwe Research Articles

Prevalence of gastrointestinal nematodes in Mukota pigs in a communal area of Zimbabwe

A one year monitoring study was conducted between November 2005 and October 2006 to determine the prevalence of gastrointestinal nematodes in indigenous Mukota pigs in Hama-Mavhaire communal area of Chirumhanzu District, Zimbabwe. Faecal samples from a total of 143 randomly selected pigs of both sexes and different ages ( 12 months) from 10 villages were collected from the rectum for identification and quantification of nematode eggs. Of the 143 pigs, 58.7% were positive for gastrointestinal (GI) nematodes, 17.5% having mixed infections. Four parasite species were identified;Oesophagostomum species (54.6%) being the most prevalent followed byStrongyloides ransomi (14%), Ascaris species (7%) and Trichuris suis (4.2%). Month had an effect on the prevalence and mean egg counts of the four GI nematode species. However, pig class and the interaction between pig class and month did not have an effect on the prevalence and mean egg counts of the GI nematode species. The present work indicates that parasite prevalence in local indigenous pigs in the communal areas is moderate. Further examinations are needed to determine the pathological importance and impact of parasitic infestations on indigenous pigs in the communal area. Key words: Ascaris, epidemiology, indigenous pigs, internal parasites,Oesophagostomum.

The CAMPFIRE programme in Zimbabwe: Payments for wildlife services

Payments for environmental services (PES) have been distinguished from the more common integrated conservation and development projects on the grounds that PES are direct, more cost-effective, less complex institutionally, and therefore more likely to produce the desired results. Both kinds of schemes aim to achieve similar conservation outcomes, however, and generally function in analogous social, political and economic environments. Given the relative novelty of PES, what lessons can be learnt and applied from earlier initiatives? In this paper, we describe the evolution over the first 12 years (1989–2001) of Zimbabwe's Communal Areas Management Programme for Indigenous Resources (CAMPFIRE), a community-based natural resource management programme in which Rural District Councils, on behalf of communities on communal land, are granted the authority to market access to wildlife in their district to safari operators. These in turn sell hunting and photographic safaris to mostly foreign sport hunters and eco-tourists. The District Councils pay the communities a dividend according to an agreed formula. In practice, there have been some underpayments and frequent delays. During 1989–2001, CAMPFIRE generated over US$20 million of transfers to the participating communities, 89% of which came from sport hunting. The scale of benefits varied greatly across districts, wards and households. Twelve of the 37 districts with authority to market wildlife produced 97% of all CAMPFIRE revenues, reflecting the variability in wildlife resources and local institutional arrangements. The programme has been widely emulated in southern and eastern Africa. We suggest five main lessons for emerging PES schemes: community-level commercial transactions can seldom be pursued in isolation; non-differentiated payments weaken incentives; start-up costs can be high and may need to be underwritten; competitive bidding can allow service providers to hold on to rents; and schemes must be flexible and adaptive.

Investments and returns from cooperative and household managed woodlots in Zimbabwe: Implications for rural afforestation policy

For several decades, the Zimbabwean government, donors, and NGOs have actively promoted the establishment of cooperative woodlots in Zimbabwe's communal areas. However, despite the provision of considerable extension support and subsidies to these cooperatives, household woodlots are far more common. This paper investigates the motivations of households and groups in Zimbabwe's communal areas to plant trees. Estimates of private economic returns suggest that cooperative woodlots are generally more profitable than household managed woodlots. However, household managed tree planting yields higher economic returns in the absence of subsidized land and other inputs. Statistical analysis indicates that, relative to cooperatively managed woodlots, household managed woodlots tend to be associated with access to non-timber benefits such as windbreaks, and access to market benefits through harvesting. However, relative to cooperatively managed woodlots, household managed woodlots receive less extension advice, and are associated with lower projected private returns because of subsidies provided to cooperative woodlot groups. Although the literature on cooperative management is replete with examples of successful cases, for the case of woodlots in Zimbabwe, it appears as though policy makers may be promoting the wrong management option. Household management of woodlots, rather than cooperative management, may provide greater economic returns, and accordingly better incentives, for the adoption of tree planting.

Sustainability of Agricultural Production in Communal Areas of Zimbabwe: Case of Chionekano Communal Lands

In Sub-Saharan Africa, at least 70% of the population lives in rural communal areas where they make a living out of subsistence farming. The sector continues to seek for donor support to improve their farming activities with little attention being paid to viability and sustainability of their production systems. There is also sketchy location- specific empirical evidence from research showing sustainability of communal farming practices. The broad objective of this study was therefore to evaluate the sustainability of agricultural production in communally owned farming areas. Agricultural sustainability was conceptualized in terms of biological productivity, economic viability, and reduction of production risk, environmental protection and social acceptability. Primary and secondary data were collected using a structured questionnaire. Information on socio-economic characteristics, production patterns and their environmental implications, constraints and opportunities for achieving sustainability were elicited from respondents. A total of 498 households were interviewed through a census. Respondents were drawn from a cross-section of the community made up of male, female, and childheaded households from Chionekano communal farming area in Zimbabwe. The area is characterized by average annual rainfall of 600 mm, temperature range of 15-25 0 C, sparse vegetation cover and soils of less than 1% organic matter. The results revealed that the agricultural production system was below par due to degraded soil conditions which resulted in low crop yields, low returns from the livestock sector due to high incidences of stock thefts and deteriorating veld condition. Access to financial support was limited due to lack of collateral and high production risk where farmers’ production is solely based on natural and unreliable rainfall patterns and therefore unsustainable. Strategies to improve food security should receive priority to support sustainable resource management, increase access to finance and suitable inputs on credit to be worked out and soil fertility conservation to be exercised with particular focus on organic farming. Emphasis should be placed on environmental management training, production monitoring and offer financial support schemes at concessionary interest rates to spruce up their production to breakeven levels.

An analysis of institutions associated with wetlands use, access and management in communal areas of Zimbabwe: A case study of Zungwi vlei, Zvishavane

The paper discusses the findings of a study that aimed to analyse institutional dynamics around vleis utilisation. Vleis are wetlands, which provide numerous resources for the communities that access and benefit from them. For a long time vleis use and sustainable management has been a topical issue amongst academics and policy makers in Zimbabwe. The following study tools were used in data collection; questionnaires, focus group discussions, trend analysis, observations, mapping and interviews. Data collected show that cultivation of Zungwi vlei started before colonisation and has continued to date. Community perceived that the state of natural resources is declining rapidly especially after 1980. Zungwi vlei was endowed with numerous resource units such as trees, swamps, springs, land, grass and reed beds. Majority (68%) of the 34 non-scheme member’s interviews said they benefited from the vlei resources. The study also found that although everyone in Mazvihwa had access rights but not all those with rights to access Zungwi vlei did so. Power relations were pivotal in vlei access and use. The study identified 12 institutions, which were involved with Zungwi vlei. Customary institutions regulated access and use of resources in the vlei. Although different state agents implemented the preservative government policy on vlei utilisation and use, the study found out that they operated at a distance and were ranked lowly by peasants. Sixty percent of 76 respondents thought traditional institutions are better managers of natural resources, while 33% thought government departments should manage natural resources. Traditional institutions use customary law and mythical fences in managing natural resources. These mythical fences are threatened by modernisation. The paper concludes that traditional institutions should be empowered to be able to manage natural resources.

Political Deadlock and Devolved Wildlife Management in Zimbabwe

Since February 2000, Zimbabwe has been experiencing an unparalleled period of political, economic, and social uncertainty. The most prominent features are the political deadlock generated by (a) confrontation between the ruling Zimbabwe African National Union–Patriotic Front (ZANU-PF) and the Movement for Democratic Change (MDC) party; (b) the illegal invasion of private land; (c) hyperinflation; and (d) the withdrawal of bilateral donor funds. Generally, a culture of impunity exists that compromises the rule of law. Within this crisis, very little attention has been given to the impact that this political deadlock and uncertainty have on natural resource management in the communal lands of Zimbabwe. Between 1990 and 2000, Zimbabwe's Communal Areas Management Programme for Indigenous Resources (CAMPFIRE) was considered one of the leading community conservation initiatives attracting considerable international interest and analysis. This article analyzes the changes that are taking place within Nenyunga Ward, Gokwe North Rural District Council (RDC), since 2000. By comparing selected natural resource management activities before and after 2000, the article demonstrates how the larger macroeconomic and political processes are undermining natural resource management at the ward level.

Diet determination of cattle grazing in the Sanyati communal areas in Zimbabwe

SummaryThe diet of cattle grazing in the Sanyati communal area, Zimbabwe was determined using plant particle identification from faeces from intact animals, and faeces and oesophageal extrusa from fistulated animals. A total of 130 plant genus, species and types were identified. The twenty most frequently occurring species in the samples comprised between 76 and 90% of the identifiable diet. The most frequent grass species were more than half of the identified diet in the dry season while they were half or less of the identified diet in the wet season. There were more plant species identified in the wet season than in the dry season. Significant differences were found when comparing the plant species identified in faeces to those in oesophageal extrusa from fistulated animals. This may be due to incomplete recovery of ingesta in the bags, or to the loss of identifiable particles in the faeces when compared to oesophageal extrusa because of digestibility. More research is needed to validate the use of oesophageal extrusa for diet botanical determination.

Traditional chicken production in Zimbabwe

Formal knowledge about traditional free-range chicken production in tropical countries is increasing but still limited. However, it appears from literature studied connection with these studies, that management, and thus production performance, in general is comparable in different countries and affected by similar factors. Further, poultry production has shown to be a very important income generating activity, predominantly run by women. On the basis of three studies (A, B and C), the paper describes local chicken production in a communal area of Zimbabwe and highlights production characteristics. Study A is an investigation of the management and production through questionnaires and semi-structured interviews. Study B is a phenotypic description of 360 chickens and a description of feed availability. Study C is records of production during 6 months. Findings confirmed that women owned most chicken flocks and that income generated from chicken production was spent to better nutrition, health and education of the family. High mortality and slow growth were, by farmers perceived to be the major constraints to production. This was supported by production records, which showed that survival among young chickens was low (45% until 16 weeks of age). Most deaths (69%) occurred during the first 3 weeks after hatching. Most common mortality causes were diseases, predation, external parasites and accidents. Few clutches per hen per year with long brooding periods resulted in low production of chickens ready for slaughter or sale. Growth rates until 10 weeks of age were just over 6 g/day. Production results are discussed in relation to other literature.

SACRED GROVES ON DAMBOS IN ZIMBABWE: ARE THESE PRIVATE RESOURCES FOR THE RURAL ELITES?

ABSTRACT Recent literature raises issues about how we categorize shared resources in communal settings. Are sacred groves private properties for elites or are they common property resources for the community? Some researchers in Zimbabwe argue that sacredness is a ploy by some elites to privatize resources that should be used by the community. In this paper, I look at sacred groves on dambos in two communal areas in Zimbabwe and explore the nature of property rights on sacred resources. I assess the notion of sacredness as a key element in defining property rights over resources found in the groves. I argue that current orthodoxy about elitism and the tendency towards privatization of common resources underplays the strength of community censure and under-values the role of ecological cults. I suggest that differential use of sacred resources is no more than a sanctioned use typical in common property situations. Suggesting trends towards privatization or elite monopoly of resources credits elites with more power than is possible and ignores the power of the weak to challenge or assert their rights over communal resources.

'CAMPFIRE is not for Ndebele Migrants': The Impact of Excluding Outsiders from CAMPFIRE in the Zambezi Valley, Zimbabwe

In wildlife management in developing countries, it is widely accepted that limiting the benefits of wildlife to 'producer communities' - those communities who share territory with wildlife - ensures conservation at the local level. In southern Africa, governments have taken on board this principle, and have organised their wildlife management programmes around it. This is the case with Zimbabwe's Communal Areas Management Programme for Indigenous Resources or CAMPFIRE. Using a case study of CAMPFIRE, this article examines both the effects of concentrating benefits in producer communities, and of excluding outsiders from community-based natural resource management programmes. It argues that the monopoly on benefits held by the producer community serves to antagonise non-members and, in some cases, spurs them on to seek the destruction of what they may come to regard as a costly wildlife management programme.

The effect of treatment with a 1% injectable formulation of moxidectin during the rainy season and at the beginning of the dry season on gastrointestinal nematodes in cattle from communal areas in Zimbabwe.

The effect of 1% moxidectin/cydectin at 0.2 mg/kg live weight on gastrointestinal nematodes and on the growth of calves, weaners and cows was investigated in five communal areas on the highveld of Zimbabwe. Three field experiments were carried out between March 1996 and June 1997. In experiment 1, treatment was administered in all five areas at the end of the rainy season in March 1996, followed by a further treatment at the beginning of the dry season in May/June 1996. In experiment 2, the treatment was administered in three areas at the end of the rainy season in March 1997. In experiment 3, treatment was administcred in one area at the beginning of the dry season in April 1997. Large numbers of eggs were present in the faeces of calves and weaners at the start of experiments 1 and 2. Epg values were lower in cows and in all age categories in experiment 3. There was a statistically significant reduction in epg values in calves, weaners and cows following treatment with a reduction of 90-99% in all cases except in cows in experiment 3, where no meaningful assessment was possible owing to the low egg counts in both the treated and control cows. The dominating larval types in faecal cultures were Cooperia and Haemonchus. Trichostrongylus, Oesophagostomum and Bunostomum were also found. Following treatment, Haemonchus was suppressed far more than Cooperia. This may be related to a longer residual effect against abomasal parasites like Haemonchus in comparison to small intestinal worms like Cooperia. Anthelmintic treatment conferred significant weight gain advantages (p < 0.05) on treated calves. weaners and cows. The weight gains are discussed in relation to disease and nutrition.

Effects of annual rainfall and habitat types on the body mass of impala (Aepyceros melampus) in the Zambezi Valley, Zimbabwe

AbstractBody mass is often considered as a good indicator of body condition of individuals in ungulates, hence of their fitness, and thus, may be used as an index to monitor the status of populations subject to harvesting schemes. Here, we report the influence of annual rainfall (a proxy for primary production) and habitat on the body mass of impala in a population cropped for meat in a communal area of Zimbabwe. We analyzed the data from 2 contrasted years for rainfall, in two different habitats. In the good year (i.e. high annual rainfall) impala were heavier than in the poor year, and adult females seemed to be less affected than males by variation in primary production. We show that adult males were suffering from a seasonal decrease in body mass, supposedly linked to the rut, particularly in good habitat. Overall, the habitat effect appeared to be dominated by the rainfall effect, and this may be due to the very high animal densities in the good habitat, i.e. fast resource depletion. Our results also suggest that males (juvenile and adult) are more susceptible to changes in food resource abundance and quality than females, which supports previous studies on sexually dimorphic and polygynous species.

Factors Related to Zimbabwe Women’s Educational Needs in Agriculture

The article describes selected participants, their perceived educational needs and barriers to Extension participation. Data were collected from 377 rural women in Shurugwi District, Zimbabwe using face-to-face interviews. A reliable and valid researcher-developed survey instrument elicited three categories of information from the participants: (a) demographic data, (b) perceived barriers participation, (c) assessments of self perceived amount of “knowledge” for agricultural production and assessments of self perceived level of “importance” in agricultural production. Perceived educational needs were assessed using the Borich (1980) needs assessment model. Findings revealed that rural women’s highest educational needs were in nutrition knowledge, access to land and credit, and outstanding barriers to Extension participation were transportation, lack of information, and time constraints. Results of the study can help AGRITEX in placing its priorities on the items that were ranked high to meet the needs of rural women, attract a wider audience, and lead to the success of Extension programs in Zimbabwe. Introduction Although women are the main actors in feeding the household, they often have little or no access to land, credit, education and technology. Little attention has been paid to alleviate women’s problems, particularly those in rural areas. Due to gender blindness that still prevails, agricultural policies, on the whole, do not address the needs of women farmers adequately (FAO, 1998). A total of 40% of the households in communal areas of Zimbabwe are female headed, as men leave their homes in search of jobs in urban areas (Zwart, 1990). Hence, the role of women in agriculture has tremendously increased. This trend has been called the “feminization of agriculture” and is most emphasized in Sub-Saharan Africa (World Bank, 1996). Extension educators are responsible for helping clients to accurately identify their educational needs. This is an important step in planning, developing and implementing programs. Programs are most often successful when they focus on clearly defined needs of the target group (Boldt, (1987). Therefore, the accuracy with which needs are identified for educational input is a crucial step toward meeting Extension’s objectives. Purpose and Objectives The primary purpose of this study was to describe selected demographic characteristics of rural women in Shurugwi District, Zimbabwe, to assess their perceived agricultural educational needs and perceived barriers to extension participation. For this study, four objectives were developed: To describe rural women in Shurugwi District, Zimbabwe, according to selected characteristics (age, marital status, level of education, land ownership, and family size). To determine the perceived educational needs of rural women in Shurugwi District, Zimbabwe. To determine perceived barriers to Extension participation by rural women of Shurugwi District, Zimbabwe. To determine the relationship between selected demographic characteristics of rural women and their perceived educational needs and barriers to Extension participation. Methodology/Procedures The research design employed in this study was descriptive correlational survey and, therefore, did not permit manipulation of variables or prediction of outcomes. A survey is a powerful, scientific research tool used to gather accurate and useful information as long as the samples have been drawn randomly from a large population (Salant & Dillman, 1994). Strengths and weaknesses of survey research

Can common property resource systems work in Zimbabwe?

Common property resource (CPR) management approaches are now thought to provide a viable alternative to natural resource management. Our investigations on common property issues for woodlands in communal areas in Zimbabwe reveal numerous cases showing a breakdown of local institutions for CPR management, and the lack of any emerging alternative institutions for such management. A number of economic, social and ecological factors contribute to these problems. We argue that current institutional systems are rooted in norm-based controls contrary to the formal rule-based systems that form the cornerstones of the proposed CPR systems. We suggest that interventions that propose CPR systems need critical analysis. The Zimbabwe Science News Volume 36 (1+ 2) 2002, pp. 13-17

The political ecology of poverty alleviation in Zimbabwe's Communal Areas Management Programme for Indigenous Resources (CAMPFIRE)

The CAMPFIRE program in Zimbabwe is one of a `new breed' of strategies designed to tackle environmental management at the grassroots level. CAMPFIRE aims to help rural communities to manage their resources, especially wildlife, for their own local development. The program's central objective is to alleviate rural poverty by giving rural communities autonomy over resource management and to demonstrate to them that wildlife is not necessarily a hindrance to arable agriculture, “but a resource that could be managed and `cultivated' to provide income and food”. In this paper, we assess two important elements of CAMPFIRE: poverty alleviation and local empowerment and comment on the program's performance in achieving these highly interconnected objectives. We analyze the program's achievements in poverty alleviation by exploring tenurial patterns, resource ownership and the allocation of proceeds from resource exploitation; and its progress in local empowerment by examining its administrative and decision making structures. We conclude that the program cannot effectively achieve the goal of poverty alleviation without first addressing the administrative and legal structures that underlie the country's political ecology.

The Closing Frontier: Agrarian Change, Immigrants and the ‘Squatter Menace’ in Gokwe, 1980‐1990s

‘Squatting’ in the communal areas of Zimbabwe has been largely ignored in the literature because it is assumed that it does not exist in a ‘communal’ land tenure system. This article argues that ‘squatting’ in Gokwe villages has become a common strategy by landless immigrants to access land. Gokwe has been a frontier region for many immigrants in search of land since the 1950s with intense pressure on land by the 1990s. As the frontier closed, the question of citizenship in Gokwe villages became more signi?cant than ever before. Those who are not formally registered as residents are de?ned by local government authorities and established villagers as ‘squatters’ who should be evicted. The article traces how local authorities and established villagers have responded to what they perceive as the ‘squatter menace’. It further examines the means used by ‘squatters’ to lay claims to land and to defend those claims in Gokwe villages.

Challenges to Proponents of Common Property Recource Systems: Despairing Voices from the Social Forests of Zimbabwe

There is a fair degree of misplaced optimism about common property resource (CPR) management. In investigating common property issues for woodlands in communal areas in Zimbabwe, we are struck by the numerous case studies showing a breakdown of local institutions for CPR management, and the lack of any emerging alternative institutions for such management. There are a number of contributing economic, social and ecological factors to this phenomenon. We argue that the formal rule-based systems that form the cornerstones of the proposed CPR systems are far removed from the current institutional systems, rooted in norm-based controls. We suggest that advocacy of CPR systems has to be tempered with critical analysis.

A survey of herd size, disease and health management systems of cattle in Sanyati Communal Area of Zimbabwe

A questionnaire survey was conducted to determine cattle ownership, prevalent diseases and health management systems in Sanyati Communal Area. Forty-four percent of the households owned 1 to 4 head of cattle. On average, the herds comprised approximately 32% cows, 3% bulls, 45% oxen, and 20% calves. Mortality averaged 26 + 3% per annum. The major diseases and causes of mortality identified by the farmers were dermatophilosis, parafilariosis, abortion and tick borne diseases. An unknown but fatal respiratory disease of cattle was also reported. Farmers attested to inadequate veterinary support in disease control and intervention. In conclusion, dermatophilosis and parafilariosis were the major cattle health problems in the area. Control measures were hampered by inadequate veterinary support.

Soil Fertility Status in the Communal Areas of Zimbabwe in Relation to Sustainable Crop Production

ABSTRACT Improvement and maintenance of soil fertility is the major constraint to sustainable crop production in the communal areas (CAs) or peasant farming areas of Zimbabwe. This study assessed soil fertility status in CAs at two levels, i.e., regional and village levels. The regional soil fertility assessment was based on soil samples submitted by CA farmers to the Soil Testing Laboratory of the Chemistry and Soil Research Institute (CSRI) for analysis and fertilizer recommendations in 1992–1994. It was assumed that these samples would represent the general soil fertility conditions in the most crop production-based CAs since CSRI soil testing service is the only one normally available for farmers in the CAs. To assess soil fertility status at village level, systematic soil sampling in maize-based fields was conducted in Chinamhora and Mhondoro CAs using mapping units of 1–10 km2, which would presumably capture some effects of farmer soil management on soil fertility status. The regional assessment revealed that 77% of the soils required lime (pH [CaCl2] < 5.0) for most crops, and problems of potential Al toxicity (pH [CaCl2] < 4.3) and P deficiency in over 40% of the soils. Serious problems were incidences of very low N (82%) and marginal to deficient P (84%) levels. The levels of K and Mg were generally adequate (94%). The village level assessment showed wide variations in soil properties between fields of less than 2 hectares within distances of about 1 km. This implied high probability of multiple soil fertility problems for crops in the CAs. Compared to previous assessments, the results revealed that there is a general acidification and decline in the nutrient status of CA soils. Soil fertility management effects were implied by the lower incidences of P deficiency in the more heavily fertilized Chinamhora CA, and lower incidences of potential Al toxicity and low K at the regional level than at village level which suggested greater use of acidifying N fertilizers and more depletion of soil K under maize. Acidification and depletion of nutrients may become even greater constraints to crop production in the CAs if the trend continues, especially under maize.

Deforestation of woodlands in communal areas of Zimbabwe: is it due to agricultural policies?

Deforestation and woodland degradation are issues of great concern in Zimbabwe. The debate on these issues has identified a number of causes including expansion of arable land, demand for fuelwood and construction poles, and urban expansion. This paper examined how some policies aimed at improving agricultural production may be contributing to deforestation of woodlands in the communal and resettlement areas of Zimbabwe. Consideration was given to maize ( Zea mays L.), cotton ( Gosspium hirsutum L.) and sunflower ( Helianthus anuus L.); crops with appreciable land area in 1980–90. Regression analysis indicated that policies which improved marketing of grains, provision of credit (largely in form of farm inputs) and extension services, encouraged expansion of land under maize and less so under cotton. High nominal prices encouraged expansion of area under maize while decreasing real prices of cotton, if not reversed, had potential for reducing land under cotton. Increased fertilizer prices, through removal of subsidies as required by structural adjustment policies, had potential for reducing land under maize and sunflower. The driving force for sunflower and cotton production was partly based on the desire, by farmers, for non-declining revenues in successive years. During the same period, real producer prices for these crops were declining and demand for cash was increasing rapidly. The evaluated agricultural policies appeared to have been responsible for moderate expansion of land area under maize but more significant expansion of land under cotton and sunflower. These policies could have encouraged modest deforestation of woodlands in the Zimbabwean communal and resettlement areas in the period 1980–1995.