Colleges Of Veterinary Medicine Research Articles

Development of an Interactive Multidisciplinary Platform for the Bovine Neuroanatomy Study

The anatomy study is part of the basic cycle of disciplines that composes Veterinary Medicine college curriculum, and its comprehension is essential for other courses subject understanding. However, the current student’s profile, the reduced time frame of superior education programs, and the multidisciplinary approach nowadays have made anatomy teaching method outdated and ineffective. Addressing the problem we developed an interactive and multidisciplinary platform based on the blended learning methodology, which could serve as a valuable tool for bovine neuroanatomy comprehension. To produce a new study tool, photos from bovine specimens fixed in formaldehyde, platinated brain pieces sectioned in a metameric order, as well as histological slides of the bovine central nervous system were used. These materials were applied to photos and schemes production, that were correlated with image exams correlation, as well as written content and videotaped classes. The obtained content was compiled into a digital platform, that can serve as an effective additional method to bovine central nervous system study. Furthermore, our results serve as a guide for the development of other blended learning methodologies in veterinary medicine and anatomy teaching. The platform provides a great tool for those who wish to accomplish a better understanding of bovine neuroanatomy and its clinical, surgical and image diagnosis correlations.

BOVINE DYSTOCIA IN IRAQ TYPES AND TREATMENTS

Study was conducted on 149 case of cross breed bovine dystocia referred to Department of Theriogenology, College of Veterinary Medicine and Al-Wihda Cattle station, Baghdad, Iraq. Results showed that 87.5% of bovine dystocia were successfully relieved by cesarean section (C.S), 85.5% success was achieved by correction an traction, 71.4% by fetotomy and 50% by hormonal treatment. Most of the cases subjected to C.S, were heifers. Details concerning number of cases subjected to C.S, indications, positive response, state of pregnancy, number of claves recovered, number of male/female and survival rate of claves were listed in two enclosed tables. From results we may conclude that C.S was the best indicative treatment of dystocia, particularly when all the trails and efforts of treatments failed, inspite of the reasonable results obtained from various treatments mentioned in other cases

Longitudinal assessment of competency development at The Ohio State University using the competency-based veterinary education (CBVE) model.

With the development of the American Association of Veterinary Medical Colleges' Competency-Based Veterinary Education (CBVE) model, veterinary schools are reorganizing curricula and assessment guidelines, especially within the clinical rotation training elements. Specifically, programs are utilizing both competencies and entrustable professional activities (EPAs) as opportunities for gathering information about student development within and across clinical rotations. However, what evidence exists that use of the central tenets of the CBVE model (competency framework, milestones and EPAs) improves our assessment practices and captures reliable and valid data to track competency development of students as they progress through their clinical year? Here, we report on validity evidence to support the use of scores from in-training evaluation report forms (ITERs) and workplace-based assessments of EPAs to evaluate competency progression within and across domains described in the CBVE, during the final year clinical training period of The Ohio State University's College of Veterinary Medicine (OSU-CVM) program. The ITER, used at the conclusion of each rotation, was modified to include the CBVE competencies that were assessed by identifying the stage of student development on a series of descriptive milestones (from pre-novice to competent). Workplace based assessments containing entrustment scales were used to assess EPAs from the CBVE model within each clinical rotation. Competency progression and entrustment scores were evaluated on each of the 31 rotations offered and high-stakes decisions regarding student performance were determined by a collective review of all the ITERs and EPAs recorded for each learner across each semester and the entire year. Results from the class of 2021, collected on approximately 190 students from 31 rotations, are reported with more than 55 299 total competency assessments combined with milestone placement and 2799 complete EPAs. Approximately 10% of the class was identified for remediation and received additional coaching support. Data collected longitudinally through the ITER on milestones provides initial validity evidence to support using the scores in higher stakes contexts such as identifying students for remediation and for determining whether students have met the necessary requirements to successfully complete the program. Data collected on entrustment scores did not, however, support such decision making. Implications are discussed.

MRI findings associated with clinical presentation and histopathology in a Mexican redknee tarantula (Brachypelma hamorii)

AbstractA 15‐year‐old, 9 g, female Mexican redknee tarantula (Brachypelma hamorii) presented to the North Carolina State University College of Veterinary Medicine with a history of anorexia and weight loss. Physical examination revealed an inability to extend the left chelicera, which was suspected to prevent the tarantula from prehending live prey. Magnetic resonance imaging revealed enlargement and T2 hyperintensity of the left chelicera. The patient was provided with supplemental feedings and rehydration until it was found deceased more than 8 months after the initial presentation. A postmortem examination was performed, and histopathology showed an area of chronic inflammation at the level of the left chelicera. Magnetic resonance imaging can be used as an antemortem diagnostic tool to identify lesions in tarantulas.

Melatonin efficacy in comparison with PMSG-HCG program for induction of fertile estruc in Iraqi anestrus bitches

This study was conducted to investigate the ability of melatonin as S/C implant in induction of fertile estrus in bitches, evaluation the treatment with PMSG-HCG in induction of estrus, and monitoring serum concentration of Estrogen and Progesterone before and after treatment, during November (2020) to May (2021) at the College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Baghdad, Baghdad, Iraq. Therefore, 21 local female dogs aged 2-4 years and two fertile males aged 2-5 years were used for natural insemination. Animals were divided equally into 3 groups including 1st group were treated with Melatonin implant S/C 18 mg /animals, 2nd group were treated with PMSG I.M 30 IU / animal for 7 days, in day 8 hCG I.M 100 IU / animal were injected and 3rd group were left as control (without treatment). After that, the bitches were subjected for clinical examination and behaviors investigation, vaginal smears sampling and hormonal evaluation (estrogen and progesterone). The findings of vaginal cytology reveled that parabasal and superficial cells were predominant during the estrus phase. Animal response recorded a significant increase between all groups, with high significance at 1st group comparing with 2nd and 3rd groups, in addition to high significant difference between 2nd and 3rd groups. Duration of response was significantly longer in 3rd group but lowered in 1st group. Pregnancy rate was higher in the 1st and 2nd group. The number of offspring in Iraqi bitches treated with melatonin for estrus induction G1 was 43 pups in G2 it was 29 pups and 7 pups for G3, the sex of offspring recorded 49.37% females and 50.63% males in total. In conclusion, the use of melatonin for induction of fertile estrus in anestrus Iraqi bitches was effective and safe.

Efficacy of Senna Leaves Extract and Rosuvastatin on Blood Parameters of Inducing Hyperlipidemia Laboratory Rats

The current study was conducted at the Department of Food Sciences / College of Agriculture / Tikrit University. This study used 20 albino male rats obtained from College of Veterinary Medicine / Tikrit University: Their ages ranged between (3-4) weeks and weights ranged between (160-175 g); The period of experiment lasted for sixty days starting from (1-4- until 1-6-2021). They were randomly divided into 4 groups and each group consists of 5 rats. The first group considered as the control group. While the second group represented the fat-treated group, in which the rats feedon diet at a concentration of 500 mg.kg-1 weight of the animal. The third group has given the Rosuvastatin which was Effect of hyper pad concentration of 500 mg.kg-1 weight of the animal, and on day 30 it was treated with Rosuvastatin at a concentration of 20 mg.kg-1 weight of the animal for a period of 30 days until the end of the experiment. The fourth group represented the Sana makki, which was fed a high-fat diet at a concentration of 500 mg/kg of animal weight, and on day 30 it was treated with Sana makki at a concentration of 0.5-1mg.kg for a period of 30 days until the end of the experiment. Blood was drawn from all groups from the eye socket at time 0, i.e. before starting the experiment and its treatments, and then after the end of the specified period of the experiment, the rats were prevented from eating for approximately 24 hours, then blood was drawn from the eye socket after placing it in the inventory box to prevent it from moving, as it collected approximately (1-2) ml of blood for the purpose of conducting blood parameters, then the animals were killed, and 3 ml of each animal was taken and placed in tubes containing an anticoagulant substance to separate the serum and conduct biochemical tests. It was observed through the current study that the effect of lipids was clear by causing a significant decrease While Rosuvastatin caused a significant decrease in the level of white blood cells when compared with the control group and when compared with the time of the start of the experiment, while Rosuvastatin caused a significant increase in (total number of red blood cells, hemoglobin concentration, platelets and packed cells volume) within the same group when compared with the start time of the experiment. While the aqueous extract of Sana makki had a clear role by returning the levels of blood parameters to their normal status when compared with the fat-treated group. Regarding the biochemical parameters (cholesterol, triglycerides, high-density lipoprotein (HDL), low-density lipoprotein (LDL), very low-density lipoprotein (VLDL) it was found that the use of fat in the ration caused significant increase (0.05) in all parameters except high-density lipoprotein HDL when compared with the control group on the one hand and when compared with the start time of the experiment on the other hand. When using Rosuvastatin, it was noted that it caused a significant decrease (0.05) in cholesterol level, while Rosuvastatin contributed to the return of (triglycerides, high-density lipoprotein (HDL)) to normal, and Rosuvastatin caused a significant increase in (low-density lipoprotein, LDL, Very high density when compared with the control group on the one hand and when compared with the start time of the experiment on the other hand. The positive effect of the aqueous extract of Sena was clear through its effect on all parameters, causing them to return to their normal values. We conclude through this study that Sena is considered as best natural compound to use for the purpose of controlling most of the biochemical parameters in the body and by preserving blood components from harmful effects, despite the role played by Rosuvastatin, but Sena is considered the best sometimes because it is free of chemical substances.

Investigation of Bovine, Caprine and Ovine Brucellosis in North Bahri, Sudan

The study was conducted at Bahri North, Khartoum State, Sudan, during the year 2021. The study was aiming at detection of bovine, caprine and ovine brucellosis in North Bahri. A total of 1050 bovine, 2081 caprine and 870 ovine blood samples were collected. Sera were separated from blood samples and kept at -20o at the laboratory of College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Bahri. Sera were tested using Rose Bengal Plate Test (RBPT) and modified Rose Bengal Plate Test (mRBPT) for detection of Brucella antibodies. By using RBPT for testing the sera for brucellosis, the prevalence of bovine brucellosis was 0.95, caprine brucellosis 11.24% and ovine brucellosis 1.14%. By using mRBPT for testing the sera for brucellosis, the prevalence of bovine brucellosis was 1.42, caprine brucellosis 13.83% and ovine brucellosis 1.95%. mRBPT is more sensitive than RBPT in detection of Brucella antibodies. Investigation of more animals covering the whole state, using of other serological and immunological test and vaccination of animals are recommended.

The effect of experimentally induced hyperglycemia by alloxan on some hematological parameters in rabbits

The study was designed to investigate the effects of hyperglycemia on some hematological and serum lipid parameters in rabbits during a period of seventy days. This study was achieved in the university of Al-Qadisyiah / college of veterinary medicine college department of pathology from 31/10/2008 till 10/02/2009. The parameters evaluated include serum lipids, red and white blood cell indices. The results show that the hyperglycemia significantly reduced (P<0.05) packed cell volume and red blood cell count when compared with control groups. Also, the hyperglycemia significantly reduced (P<0.05) white blood cell count when compared with control. Moreover, the hyperglycemia significantly elevated (P<0.05) total cholesterol concentration in the serum while it had less significant effect (P<0.05) on serum HDL-cholesterol concentration when compared with controls. Whereas, hyperglycemia significantly increased (P<0.05) serum triglycerol concentration. The results of this study suggest that hyperglycemia may have extrusive effect on serum cholesterol concentration, although it possibly possesses the potential of adversely affecting some hematological indices.

ISOLATION OF PINWORM Aspiculuris tetraptera (NITZSCH, 1821) FROM LABORATORY MICE IN BASRAH GOVERNORATE

A total of (63) nematodes worms were isolated from the cecum and colon of laboratory mice ( Balb/ c) Mus Musculus which cultured in animals house in both college of Education and college of Veterinary Medicine at Basrah university. These isolated nematodes were stained and cleared, then measured (length, width, ova). Later, classified and compared with many scientific books in taxonomy, then related that these nematodes are Aspiculuris tetraptera as a first record of this parasite in laboratory mice at Basrah governorate.

Effect of Culture Medium on in vitro Fertilization in Local Iraqi Ewes.

in vitro fertilization (IVF) is considered to be the most important reproductive biotechnological method having great potential to accelerate genetic improvement in ruminants as well as for research on embryonic development. The present study aimed to investigate the effect of culture medium and the addition of natural and synthetic antioxidants on in vitro maturation (IVM), fertilization (IVF), and culture (IVC) in local Iraqi ewes. A total of 304 reproductive systems of local ewes were collected from a slaughterhouse in Fallujah, Anbar Province, Iraq from 3, January to 1, July 2021. The study was conducted in the Reproductive Biotechnology Laboratory, Department of Surgery and Theriogenology, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Fallujah, Iraq. A total of 1368 oocytes were recovered from 608 ovaries surrounded by cumulus cells. The method of collection was aspiration and oocytes were divided into eight treatments. The first (T1), the second (T2), the third (T3), the fourth (T4), the fifth (T5), the sixth (T6), the seventh (T7), and the eighth (T8) treatments were MEM + Capparis spinosa extract 50µmol, MEM + Silymarin extract 100µmol, MEM + Coenzyme Q10 5 µmol, MEM only serves as a control, DMEM + Capparis spinosa extract 50 µmol, DMEM + Silymarin extract 100µmol, DMEM + Coenzyme Q10 5µmol and DMEM only serves as a control, respectively. The results indicated a significant difference (P≤0.05) between T5 (DMEM + Capparis spinosa extract) and other controls or treatments. Cultural medium DMEM with Capparis spinosa extract (as an antioxidant) presents the best results in the morula and blastocyst stage.

Assessment of ova collection with or without centrifugation after ovarian slicing for In vitro fertilization of slaughterhouse specimens of Iraqi Awassi ewes

This study aims to determine the most appropriate method for oocyte collection based on their quality and quantity by slicing with or without centrifugation and testify its ability for in vitro embryo production (IVP). The ovum was collected in the Artificial Insemination Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Mosul, Mosul city between 1/9/2020 to 1/11/2020. A total twenty females Genitalia slaughtered at local abattoir were collected. In vitro fertilization was done according to private lab protocols (Soran laboratory related to Soran Private Hospital for fertility disease and embryo transfer) in Irbil city/Iraq. Results of the study show no significant changes between the two methods in the extraction of Grade A oocytes. However, the slicing method, which was 33.60% of ova recovery than centrifugation ORC techniques 22.73%, ORCs method in presence Grade C oocyte higher than ORCs method which were 29.09 and 20.00%, respectively also results of in vitro fertilization show that slicing method produces embryo in high percentage 45.4% than ORCs method 25.0%. We can conclude that the best method for oocyte collection was the slicing method and this method results in the best embryo production during in vitro fertilization compared with the ORCs method.

Influence of the Oral Administration of Fish Oil on Hematological and Biochemical Performance in Local Male Rabbits.

In some developing countries in Africa, Asia, and Latin America, rapid population growth is a complicated problem, and thus, it is necessary to raise the efficiency of foodstuff production to preserve human life. Therefore, this study was designed to investigate the effect of fish oil supplementation on male rabbits' productivity, as well as their biochemical and physiological characteristics. This experiment was conducted in the Animal House of the College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Baghdad (Baghdad, Iraq) for eight weeks. Twenty-four local male rabbits were randomly divided into three groups (each containing eight rabbits) as follows: the control group that was fed with a basal diet only, the first treated group in which each animal received fish oil orally at a dose of 0.75 ml every day, and another treated group in which each animal received fish oil orally at a dose of 1.5 ml every day. Both treated groups received the treatment for 60 days. Blood samples were collected from cardiac veins by cardiac puncture at the beginning of the experiment (Zero time). On day 60 of the experiment, samples were collected again to analyze potential changes in blood characteristics, including white blood cells count, hemoglobin, and red blood cells count. These blood samples recorded a significant decrease in cholesterol in the two treatment groups, compared to the control. In conclusion, the current findings recommend daily oral administration of fish oil at a dose of 0.75 mg/ml or 1.5 mg/ml to rabbits for 60 days before conception to improve performance trials, as well as biochemical and hematological results. These alterations, however, have a small impact on these features, compared to higher doses administered to rabbits.

Knowledge, Attitude, and Practice Toward Over-the-Counter Medication Use; Among Selected Students at Sokoine University of Agriculture

Every day, we are practicing self-medication (SM) with over-the-counter (OTC) drugs within the frame of self-care for our wellbeing. This study aimed to assess knowledge, attitude, and practices on OTC medication use among selected students at Sokoine University of Agriculture (SUA) in the College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences (CVMBS). A cross-sectional study was carried out at CVMBS, in Morogoro included veterinary students and non-veterinary students. A simple random sampling technique was used to select samples and the data were collected using a self-administered questionnaire with structured and open-ended questions. Data entry, cleaning, and analysis were done using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS). The study revealed that the majority of the students 100 (64%) practice SM. Fever 69 (80.2%), emergency illness 46.0%, healthy facility charges 16.0%, distance to the health facility 12.0%, taking a long time of waiting for 11.0%, the proximity of the pharmacy shop 5.0%, no medicine in the health facilities 4.0%, 3.0% emergency illness and health facility charges, and emergency illness and takes a long time of waiting for 3.0%. The most commonly used OTC for SM in this study was painkillers (35%) and antibiotics (30%). The study revealed that community pharmacies were the major source of medicines for those who practiced SM with OTC drugs 67.0%, followed by medicines from relatives/friends 21.0%. The study also showed that there is optimal knowledge among CVMBS students, also study showed that most students have a negative attitude about SM where 38.0% strongly disagree and 37.0% disagree that SM can be practiced for all medicines. Malpractices were observed such as using remains from previous illnesses and using expired medications.

"The Damage Happens … You Just Try Not to Dwell on It": Experiences of Discrimination by Gender and Sexual Minority Veterinary Professionals and Students in the US and the UK.

Data collected in a 2016 survey of veterinary students and professionals from the United States and the United Kingdom who identified as lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, questioning, and asexual (LGBTQ+) indicated that 34.5% (152/440) had experienced difficulties related to their sexual orientation or gender identity at school or work. This study's objective was to examine narrative responses collected in the 2016 survey and utilize content analysis to explore the research questions: What are the concerns of the LGBTQ+ veterinary population, and how do they attempt to resolve difficulties at work and school? To address these questions, we developed two taxonomies that cataloged (a) the difficulties reported by veterinary professionals and students in the 2016 survey sample and (b) the outcomes of their attempts to resolve these difficulties. The themes related to difficulties that occurred most frequently were exposure to homophobic or transphobic language (n = 69; 45.4%), outness/staying in the closet (45, 29.6%), and negative emotional outcomes (32, 21.2%). The most common themes that described the outcomes of their attempts to resolve those difficulties were unresolved (n = 41, 27.0%), changed jobs or graduated (22, 14.5%), and found self-acceptance of acceptance from others (21, 13.8%). Our findings can inform the efforts of schools and colleges of veterinary medicine, professional organizations, and workplaces in targeting improvements to support LGBTQ+ students and professionals and the development of measures tailored to this population.

CORR Insights®: Reoperation Rates of Microendoscopic Discectomy Compared With Conventional Open Lumbar Discectomy: A Large-database Study.

1Professor, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany L. F. H. Theyse, College of Veterinary Medicine, Department for Small Animals, University of Leipzig, An den Tierkliniken 23, D-04103 Leipzig, Germany, Email: [email protected] This CORR Insights® is a commentary on the article “Reoperation Rates of Microendoscopic Discectomy Compared With Conventional Open Lumbar Discectomy: A Large-database Study” by Masuda and colleagues available at: DOI: 10.1097/CORR.0000000000002322. The author certifies that there are no funding or commercial associations (consultancies, stock ownership, equity interest, patent/licensing arrangements, etc.) that might pose a conflict of interest in connection with the submitted article related to the author or any immediate family members. All ICMJE Conflict of Interest Forms for authors and Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research® editors and board members are on file with the publication and can be viewed on request. The opinions expressed are those of the writer, and do not reflect the opinion or policy of CORR® or The Association of Bone and Joint Surgeons®.

Veterinary medical student perceptions of companion animal primary care as a career choice over an academic year.

Despite companion animal primary care being the most common career choice for veterinarians, relatively little is known about students' perception of this career choice. In this study, the authors examined students' (233 at Time 1 and 119 at Time 2) perceptions of careers in companion animal primary care and whether perceptions changed over the course of an academic year or differed by year in veterinary school. The study was conducted by an online questionnaire sent to the student email listserv and the results analyzed by Mixed ANOVAs for each perception outcome. The study concluded that a majority of veterinary students have companion animal primary care as their preferred career choice and have a positive perception of it as a career choice. This positive perception increased over the course of an academic year, but did not differ significantly by year in school. First year students had a decrease in perception of level of training over time. This study sets a baseline for students' perceptions of companion animal primary care as a career choice at one college of veterinary medicine.

General and Progressive Semen Motility Affected by using Black Currant (Prunus cerasus) Extracts in Rams

This study was designed in order to investigate and determine the effect of black current (Prunus cerasus) extract on semen general and progressive motility of the rams. Twelve mature healthy rams was used in this study aged between 2-3 years, kept in the animal farm of the College of Veterinary Medicine, Al-Kufa University. Semen ejaculates was collected using electroejaculator methods once weekly a total of 36 ejaculates were collected among the period of the study. The black current (Prunus cerasus) extract was prepared by using maceration and added to the semen in five doses groups (0.25 gm/ml as G1, 0.5 gm/ml as G2, 1 gm/ml as G3, 2 gm/ml as G4, 4 gm/ml as G5) and the positive control group left without any addition. The treatment samples were evaluated under cooling for five consecutive days, the general and progressive motility were analysis using Computer Assisted Sperm Analysis (CASA). The results of the study clearly indicated that there were a significant differences (P<0.05) in G1 and G2 than other groups in five days of examination, with the preference to the G1 group.

Great challenges, great minds meet at University of Florida College of Veterinary Medicine.

Great challenges, great minds meet at University of Florida College of Veterinary Medicine.

Histological and histochemical study of large intestine in Camel (Camelus Dromedarius)

Current study was performed to describe the Histohistological and histochemical structures of the large intestine in Iraqi one humped camel (Camelus Dromedarius). Five healthy male camels Approximately 3 to 4 years old were chosen and their specimens from cecum, colon and rectum. The specimens were directly transferred after the animal’s slaughtering to the histology lab at College of Veterinary Medicine for subsequent histological techniques. Tissue specimensfrom various parts of the large intestine (cecum, colon and rectum) were collected and fixed with 10% neutral buffered formalin then subjected to routine tissue processing. Sections of 6 micrometers thickness were prepared and stained with hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) for general histology and Periodic Acid Schiff combine with Alcian blue (AB–PAS), Masson's trichrome as well as Verhoeff stains for histochemical description. Microscopic findings revealed four tunicae constructing the wall of cecum, colon and rectum mucosa, that were from the inner most mucosa, submucosa, muscularis and the outer most either serosa or adventitia. The tunica mucosa characterized by simple columnar epithelium rested on basement membrane and the presence of muscularis mucosa which separated mucosa from the underneath submucosa. Crypts of Lieberkühn and goblet cells were abundant in the colonic epithelium. The submucosa was made up of irregular connective tissue rich with adipose tissue and was supplied well with many blood vessels. Tunica muscularis in all over the three parts of large intestine was made up of inner circular smooth muscle fibers and outer longitudinal smooth muscle fibers. The tunica serosa, and in parts replaced by adventitia, was made up of loose connective tissues.

Efficiency of royal Jelly on in vitro fertilization in local Iraqi ewes

This study was designed to investigate the effect of addition several concentrations of royal jelly to the media used in the in vitro maturation process of Iraqi sheep. The ovary was brought from the Al-Shulla slaughterhouse and transferred to the obstetric laboratory at the College of Veterinary Medicine at the University of Baghdad by a thermal insulating box containing the physiological solution with the antibiotic penicillin at a temperature of 30-38°C. In the laboratory, the ovaries were washed with a neutral buffer solution and then the oocytes were collected by two different methods slicing ovaryor follicle aspiration. The oocytes were classification into four groups depending on the layers of the cumulus cells surrounding the oocytes, as well as the homogenous of the cytoplasm. Oocytes that are completely or partially surrounded by cumulus cells and homogeneous cytoplasm considered normal oocytes but the oocytes denuded from the cumulus cells and heterogeneous cytoplasm considered abnormal oocytes was discarded. Normal oocytes were divided randomly into four groups at maturation; the first group was matured by TCM media alone and was considered as a control group.