Cognitive Neurorehabilitation Research Articles

Effect of hypnosis versus mindfulness on self-defined treatment goals and sleep following acquired brain injury: a randomized actively controlled trial

IntroductionCognitive rehabilitation for brain injury using hypnosis has received little attention.MethodsHere, we report on self-defined treatment goals and sleep-related outcomes from a randomized actively controlled trial of 49 patients with chronic cognitive sequelae following acquired brain injury. Patients were randomized to two groups, who initially received hypnotic suggestions either from a classical hypnosis tradition (“targeted”) or from a mindfulness tradition (“non-targeted”). Patients set self-defined goals for their everyday lives.ResultsAfter eight sessions, patients reported outcomes (PROs) indicated large improvements with “same” (13%), “better” (44%), “much better” (18%), or “not a problem anymore” (25%). The reported “not a problem anymore” was exclusively reported following hypnosis, not mindfulness. After a 7-week follow-up period both groups experienced a decrease in their need for sleep (~ 55 min/day). Exploratory factor analysis showed that only improvement on objective but not subjective measures (e.g. Working Memory Index, Trail Making Test, and the European Brain Injury Questionnaire scored by a relative) reflected a latent improvement factor. This indicates that subjective reports following hypnotic suggestions should be interpreted cautiously.ConclusionBased on our findings and converging evidence, we conclude that hypnosis is a promising method in cognitive neurorehabilitation following acquired brain injury, although further high-quality randomized controlled trials are required.

Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation to Ameliorate Post-Stroke Cognitive Impairment.

Post-stroke cognitive impairment is a common and disabling condition with few effective therapeutic options. After stroke, neural reorganization and other neuroplastic processes occur in response to ischemic injury, which can result in clinical improvement through spontaneous recovery. Neuromodulation through transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) is a promising intervention to augment underlying neuroplasticity in order to improve cognitive function. This form of neuromodulation leverages mechanisms of neuroplasticity post-stroke to optimize neural reorganization and improve function. In this review, we summarize the current state of cognitive neurorehabilitation post-stroke, the practical features of tDCS, its uses in stroke-related cognitive impairment across cognitive domains, and special considerations for the use of tDCS in the post-stroke patient population.

Cognitive exergames: cognitive-motor synergies in neurorehabilitation

Research on cognitive neurorehabilitation has shown the benefits of both neuropsychological therapy and physical activity on cognitive performance. In this article, we highlight the synergies between these approaches, particularly in the context of "cognitive exergames" that are video games combining cognitive and physical exercise. Even though this area of research is rather novel, the available data suggests cognitive and physical benefits in the elderly, as well as people with brain lesions or neurodegeneration, and point towards the development of multimodal cognitive neurorehabilitation.

Innovative Technologies in the Neurorehabilitation of Traumatic Brain Injury: A Systematic Review.

Motor and cognitive rehabilitation in individuals with traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a growing field of clinical and research interest. In fact, novel rehabilitative approaches allow a very early verticalization and gait training through robotic devices and other innovative tools boosting neuroplasticity, thanks to the high-intensity, repetitive and task-oriented training. In the same way, cognitive rehabilitation is also evolving towards advanced interventions using virtual reality (VR), computer-based approaches, telerehabilitation and neuromodulation devices. This review aimed to systematically investigate the existing evidence concerning the role of innovative technologies in the motor and cognitive neurorehabilitation of TBI patients. We searched and reviewed the studies published in the Cochrane Library, PEDro, PubMed and Scopus between January 2012 and September 2022. After an accurate screening, only 29 papers were included in this review. This systematic review has demonstrated the beneficial role of innovative technologies when applied to cognitive rehabilitation in patients with TBI, while evidence of their effect on motor rehabilitation in this patient population is poor and still controversial.

Methods for Robot Behavior Adaptation for Cognitive Neurorehabilitation

An estimated 11% of adults report experiencing some form of cognitive decline, which may be associated with conditions such as stroke or dementia and can impact their memory, cognition, behavior, and physical abilities. While there are no known pharmacological treatments for many of these conditions, behavioral treatments such as cognitive training can prolong the independence of people with cognitive impairments. These treatments teach metacognitive strategies to compensate for memory difficulties in their everyday lives. Personalizing these treatments to suit the preferences and goals of an individual is critical to improving their engagement and sustainment, as well as maximizing the treatment's effectiveness. Robots have great potential to facilitate these training regimens and support people with cognitive impairments, their caregivers, and clinicians. This article examines how robots can adapt their behavior to be personalized to an individual in the context of cognitive neurorehabilitation. We provide an overview of existing robots being used to support neurorehabilitation and identify key principles for working in this space. We then examine state-of-the-art technical approaches for enabling longitudinal behavioral adaptation. To conclude, we discuss our recent work on enabling social robots to automatically adapt their behavior and explore open challenges for longitudinal behavior adaptation. This work will help guide the robotics community as it continues to provide more engaging, effective, and personalized interactions between people and robots.

Novel Advances to Post-Stroke Aphasia Pharmacology and Rehabilitation.

Aphasia is one of the most common clinical features of functional impairment after a stroke. Approximately 21–40% of stroke patients sustain permanent aphasia, which progressively worsens one’s quality of life and rehabilitation outcomes. Post-stroke aphasia treatment strategies include speech language therapies, cognitive neurorehabilitation, telerehabilitation, computer-based management, experimental pharmacotherapy, and physical medicine. This review focuses on current evidence of the effectiveness of impairment-based aphasia therapies and communication-based therapies (as well as the timing and optimal treatment intensities for these interventions). Moreover, we present specific interventions, such as constraint-induced aphasia therapy (CIAT) and melodic intonation therapy (MIT). Accumulated data suggest that using transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) and transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) is safe and can be used to modulate cortical excitability. Therefore, we review clinical studies that present TMS and tDCS as (possible) promising therapies in speech and language recovery, stimulating neuroplasticity. Several drugs have been used in aphasia pharmacotherapy, but evidence from clinical studies suggest that only nootropic agents, donepezil and memantine, may improve the prognosis of aphasia. This article is an overview on the current state of knowledge related to post-stroke aphasia pharmacology, rehabilitation, and future trends.

Neuropsychiatric symptoms in patients with mild cognitive impairment

To study the prevalence of neuropsychiatric symptoms (NPS) in patients with mild cognitive impairment (MCI) who asked for help in memory clinics. We analysed data on 729 patients with MCI (average age 76.6 years, average MMSE score 25.3), who underwent a course of cognitive neurorehabilitation in a specialized department - a memory clinic. A Russian version of Neuropsychiatric Inventory (NPI) was used. We compared the indicators for the main psychometric scales for the diagnosis of MCI in comparison with the dynamics of NPS. The prevalence rates for NPS differed in part from those reported in the literature. The most common symptom was anxiety (54.7%) and irritability (56.5%), while euphoria, as well as delusions and hallucinations were not detected. All disorders significantly reduced at the end of the rehabilitation program. MCI influences the level of functioning and social interaction in older patients and mediates the quality of life. Thus, given the increase in life expectancy, it is necessary to introduce new methods of examination applicable in the practice of psychiatrists to diagnose and rehabilitate such patients. NPS turned out to be widespread in MCI, but may reduce during the course of complex neurorehabilitation.

Experiential Neurorehabilitation: A Neurological Therapy Based on the Enactive Paradigm.

With the arrival of the cognitive paradigm during the latter half of the last century, the theoretical and scientific bases of neurorehabilitation have been linked to the knowledge developed in cognitive neuropsychology and cognitive neuroscience. Although the knowledge generated by these disciplines has made relevant contributions to neurological therapy, their theoretical premises may create limitations in therapeutic processes. The present manuscript has two main objectives: first, to explicitly set forth the theoretical bases of cognitive neurorehabilitation and critically analyze the repercussions that these premises have produced in clinical practice; and second, to propose the enactive paradigm to reinterpret perspectives on people with brain damage and their therapy (assessment and treatment). This analysis will show that (1) neurorehabilitation as a therapy underutilizes body-originated resources that aid in recovery from neurological sequelae (embrained therapy); (2) the therapeutic process is based exclusively on subpersonal explanation models (subpersonal therapy); and (3), neurorehabilitation does not take subjectivity of each person in their own recovery processes into account (anti-subjective therapy). Subsequently, and in order to attenuate or resolve the conception of embrained, subpersonal and anti-subjective therapy, I argue in support of incorporating the enactive paradigm in rehabilitation of neurological damage. It is proposed here under a new term, “experiential neurorehabilitation.” This proposal approaches neurological disease and its sequelae as alterations in dynamic interaction between the body structure and the environment in which the meaning of the experience is also altered. Therefore, when a person is not able to walk, remember the past, communicate a thought, or maintain efficient self-care, their impairments are not only a product of an alteration in a specific cerebral area or within information processing; rather, the sequelae of their condition stem from alterations in the whole living system and its dynamics with the environment. The objective of experiential neurorehabilitation is the recovery of the singular and concrete experience of the person, composed of physical and subjective life attributes.

Do Secondary Progressive Multiple Sclerosis patients benefit from Computer- based cognitive neurorehabilitation? A randomized sham controlled trial

Cognitive impairment is common in multiple sclerosis (MS), but deficits tend to be more pronounced in progressive MS, negatively impacting daily functional capacity. Despite this, most cognitive rehabilitation (CR) interventions to date have focused on relapsing-remitting MS (RRMS). Moreover, information on the efficacy of CR in progressive MS is limited and controversial. The present study investigated the efficacy of a home based, computer assisted cognitive rehabilitation (HBCACR) intervention (RehaComTM software) exclusively in a Secondary Progressive Multiple Sclerosis (SPMS) sample. This was a randomized, multi site, sham controlled trial. Thirty six (36) individuals with SPMS, naïve to the RehaCom software, with cognitive deficits were randomized to the treatment (IG; n= 19) or control group condition (CG; n=17). Treatment with the RehaCom modules consisted of 24 domain and task specific, 45 minute session's over an 8-week period, three sessions per week, applied by each patient at home. The CG completed non specific computer based activities at home with the same frequency and duration. Primary cognitive outcome measures included the Brief International Cognitive Assessment for Multiple Sclerosis (BICAMS) battery, and secondary outcome measures for depression (BDI-FS), fatigue (MFIS), and quality of life (EuroQol EQ-5D) visual analogue scale (VAS). The two groups were well matched on demographic and clinical characteristics, cognitive reserve and severity of cognitive deficits at baseline assessment. At post treatment assessment the IG group showed significant improvements with large effect sizes; in verbal learning [z=-4.759, p <.0005, g=2.898], visuospatial memory [z=-3.940, p <.0005, g=1.699] and information processing speed [z= -4.792, p <.0005, g=2.980], compared with the sham control group. We also found significant between group differences on physical [z=-3.308, p=.001, g= -.604], cognitive [z=-4.011, p <.0005, g=-1.654], psychosocial [z= 3.308, p=.010, g=-.940], and general fatigue impact [z= -2.623, p=.008, g=-.519], depression severity [z=-2.730, p=.006, g=-.519], and quality of life [z= -4.239, p <.0005, g=-1.885] in favor of the treated group. These data provide the first evidence supporting the efficacy of computer based restorative cognitive rehabilitation applied at home exclusively in SPMS patients, suggesting that adaptive neuroplasticity may occur after functional cognitive training in progressive MS. Improved cognitive functioning in combination with mood augmentation appear to have ameliorated fatigue, which impacted daily functioning activity and culminated in improved health related quality of life.

Использование музыкообогащенной среды при нарушениях когнитивных функций у взрослых (теоретический обзор)

The paper considers the directions of cognitive neurorehabilitation based on new data from neuroscience on the "musical brain", the influence of a music enriched environment on structural changes in a healthy brain and its pathology. A modern understanding of the brain foundations of musical perception is given. The role of music in the formation of brain shown by the example of structural and morphological differences between the brains of musicians and non-musicians. The article shows the influence of musical executive activity on the rate of brain ontogenesis, the formation of pathways, and an increase in the volume of white and gray matter in the brain regions associated with musical perception. The specificity of the hemispheric geography of perceptual musical brain maps described. The review of modern research directions on the role of the use of music-enriched environment in the rehabilitation of cognitive disorders is given. Various types of music technologies used in rehabilitation practice specified: neurological music therapy (NMT), musical intonation therapy (MIT) and music supported therapy (MST). Special attention is paid to the description of types of music therapy in working process with aphasia and dementia. It shows the common psychological structure of musical and speech perception, the friendliness of structural brain rearrangements and regression of aphasic disorders during MIT We consider data from studies using neuroimaging methods that prove the effectiveness of MIT in aphasia. For dementia, the productivity of using a music enriched environment in the form of MST is demonstrated. Data on the multiplicity and duration of MST courses to achieve a positive rehabilitation effect are provided. The importance of using a music enriched environment in the rehabilitation of cognitive disorders of organic genesis in the field of neuropsychological practice is discussed.

Revisiting 'brain modes' in a new computational era: approaches for the characterization of brain-behavioural associations.

The study of brain-function relationships is undergoing a conceptual and methodological transformation due to the emergence of network neuroscience and the development of multivariate methods for lesion-deficit inferences. Anticipating this process, in 1998 Godefroy and co-workers conceptualized the potential of four elementary typologies of brain-behaviour relationships named 'brain modes' (unicity, equivalence, association, summation) as building blocks able to describe the association between intact or lesioned brain regions and cognitive processes or neurological deficits. In the light of new multivariate lesion inference and network approaches, we critically revisit and update the original theoretical notion of brain modes, and provide real-life clinical examples that support their existence. To improve the characterization of elementary units of brain-behavioural relationships further, we extend such conceptualization with a fifth brain mode (mutual inhibition/masking summation). We critically assess the ability of these five brain modes to account for any type of brain-function relationship, and discuss past versus future contributions in redefining the anatomical basis of human cognition. We also address the potential of brain modes for predicting the behavioural consequences of lesions and their future role in the design of cognitive neurorehabilitation therapies.

Attention profile in children with epilepsy compared to healthy children using computer-based ForamenRehab program

Attention is a key component in cognitive functioning. Attention impairment is often present in children with epilepsy, which is one of the most common neurological disorders in children and adolescents. Evaluating the attention profiles is important for describing the patients’ cognitive weaknesses and planning individual-based cognitive neurorehabilitation. The aim of this study was to assess the attention profiles of children with epilepsy and compare the results to neurologically healthy children. Twenty-nine children with epilepsy aged 8–12 years and 19 neurologically healthy age-matched comparison group participated in assessments with baseline tasks of the Attention module of ForamenRehab computer-program. Four separate attention components were measured – focused, sustained, complex, and tracking – to reveal the most impaired aspects of attention. At the baseline level, patients showed impairments in different attention function components compared to comparison group. Children with epilepsy had significantly lower results in sustained, complex attention, and tracking components (p < 0.05). The patients had similar results with comparison group only in one component – focused attention. All children had quicker visual reaction times compared to their auditory reaction times. The results emphasize the need for attention rehabilitation in children with epilepsy and help to focus on specific components of attention in planning the intervention process.

Cognitive Neuro-Rehabilitation of HIV-Associated Neurocognitive Disorders: Case Reports of A New Computer-Based Restorative Approach In 3 Hiv-Positive Cart-Treated Patients

Cognitive Neuro-Rehabilitation of HIV-Associated Neurocognitive Disorders: Case Reports of A New Computer-Based Restorative Approach In 3 Hiv-Positive Cart-Treated Patients

Cognitive Deficits in Multiple Sclerosis: Recent Advances in Treatment and Neurorehabilitation.

This article highlights recent progress in research on treatment and neurorehabilitation of cognitive impairment in multiple sclerosis (MS) including pharmacological interventions, physical exercise, and neuropsychological rehabilitation, both in conventional and technology-assisted settings. The most consistent evidence in terms of improvement or preservation of circumscribed cognitive scores in MS patients comes from moderately sampled randomized clinical trials on multimodal approaches that combine conventional or computerized neuropsychological training with psychoeducation or cognitive behavioral therapy. Disease-modifying treatments also appear to have beneficial effects in preventing or attenuating cognitive decline, whereas there is little evidence for agents such as donepezil or stimulants. Finally, physical exercise may yield some cognitive improvement in MS patients. Despite substantial and often promising research efforts, there is a lack of validated and widely accepted clinical procedures for cognitive neurorehabilitation in MS. Development of such approaches will require collaborative efforts towards the design of interventions that are fundamentally inspired by cognitive neuroscience, potentially guided by neuroimaging, and composed of conventional neuropsychological training and cognitive behavioral therapy as well as physical exercise and therapeutic video games. Subsequently, large-scale validation will be needed with meaningful outcome measures reflecting transfer to everyday cognitive function and maintenance of training effects.

A pilot study and brief overview of rehabilitation via virtual environment in patients suffering from dementia.

Dementia is one of the increasing problems of modern societies. The immediate cure is not a possible solution, at least at the moment, but science has found a number of new ways to retard and under specific conditions to halt its development. A potential, and constantly evolving scientific field is the use of Computerized Cognitive Rehabilitation (CCR) and Virtual Environments (Vr.E). According to the existing literature, subjecting patients to various neuro-rehabilitative conditions within 3D virtual environments, allows them to obtain significant therapeutic benefits in which both transferability and durations over time are observed, in relation to the training period of the intervention. In the present study we examine whether "Serious Games (SGs)" - (learning and rehabilitating games in virtual and augmented reality) - have utilitarian value in the field of cognitive neurorehabilitation, concerned with demented population. For research purposes, we have conducted a number of case studies, based on 10 elderly patients, suffering from moderate or mild severity impairment of higher cortical functions, attributed to various types of dementias (Vascular, Alzheimer's disease, DLB dementia and mixed dementia). Each participant underwent rehabilitative intervention through our SG for a total of 10 hours within 4-5 weeks period. At the end of the cognitive rehabilitation program, patients' performance was assessed based in standard neuropsychological tests (measuring: working memory, memory retention, attention, problem solving, rigid thinking and executive function) and the results were compared with measurements taken before, during, and at the end of the intervention. Our experimental hypothesis states that there will be a significant difference between the results of cognitive performance of the patients between the pre- and post- rehabilitative period, consequential of the Interactive Computer-based Training (ICT). In conclusion, a review and brief analysis of the relevant literature was carried out in order to investigate the specification of potentially beneficial variables and to appreciate as much as possible the multifactorial causes related to this particular rehabilitation method of the corresponding suffering population. The ultimate purpose of our research is the design and creation of a prospective interactive cognitive rehabilitation training SG, able to combine both the neuro-rehabilitative character of the controlled virtual environment, as well as the potential realism that is also attributed to it (factual validity under high experimental realism). The results showed a relative improvement in the total of the cognitive variables under consideration after the completion of the neuro-rehabilitative program, while a parallel review of the literature on the subject revealed methodological considerations similar to those of the present study.

Neurorrehabilitación cognitiva: fundamentos y aplicaciones de la musicoterapia neurológica

Music is the result of a perception in the brain involving a number of cortical and subcortical areas in both brain hemispheres. Increased knowledge about brain plasticity and the numerous neuroimaging studies conducted in recent years have made it possible to further our understanding of the processing of musical stimuli in the brain. This has led to an interest in analysing and studying its application in the non-invasive treatment of certain dysfunctions or diseases with the aim of helping to achieve an improved quality of life. To outline the foundations and applications of the musical techniques that are used in cognitive neurorehabilitation. Following an initial summary of the processing of musical stimuli in the brain, the study goes on to explain the foundations of different techniques, as defined by neurologic music therapy, that are used efficaciously in cognitive neurorehabilitation. Sounds, which are the raw material of music, maintain a temporality and a sequencing that are a useful aid in the formation of temporal patterns of the cognitive functions, and constitute an assembly or framework that facilitates the learning of sequential information processing, such as memory. The techniques used in neurologic music therapy, which in recent years are being applied for cognitive neurorehabilitation, are not invasive and offer promising results that, together with further research, should be taken into account to be implemented alongside the conventional therapies of cognitive neurorehabilitation and stimulation.

P303 Transcranial direct current stimulation over parietal cortex and associative memory

Background Memory enhancement is one of the most challenging issues in neurorehabilitation. Memory functions are affected by different neurological conditions as well as by normal aging. Recent data suggest that it may be possible to improve performance on some of the memory tests by physiological modulation of the activity within a neural loop which plays crucial role in formation and maintenance of the associative memory and which consists of the hippocampus and the lateral parietal cortex. Aims To check the differential effects of facilitatory and inhibitory noninvasive neuromodulation by transcranial direct current stimulation (TDCS) on associative memory. Methods Nineteen healthy right-handed participants (8 male, age 22–35) were enrolled in a cross-over placebo-controlled study. Following 20-min of either anodal (facilitatory), cathodal (inhibitory) or sham (placebo) TDCS over left lateral parietal cortex (P3 of 10–20 EEG system), in 3 separate sessions with 5–7 days inter-session intervals, participants completed a face-cued word recall test of associative memory. The test consisted of two blocks: (a) learning block, in which random words were paired with unfamiliar faces, and (b) recall block in which participants were asked to identify the target faces and recall the word previously presented together with each face. In each session, participants also completed a verbal fluency task, as a control task. Results The repeated measures ANOVA showed significant main effect of stimulation type ( F ( 2 , 36 ) = 3.71 , p = . 034 , η 2 = . 171 ). Post-hoc tests revealed that participant performed better on the associative memory task after anodal than cathodal stimulation ( p . 05 ), and the same trend was observed between anodal and sham stimulation. No difference was found between sham and cathodal stimulation. No effect of stimulation on verbal fluency task. Conclusions Noninvasive brain modulation has a potential to improve performance on tasks requiring associative memory engagement. The effect may prove to be beneficial for cognitive neurorehabilitation.

Cognitive Neuro-Rehabilitation of HIV-Associated Neurocognitive Disorders: Case Reports of A New Computer-Based Restorative Approach In 3 Hiv-Positive Cart-Treated Patients

Cognitive Neuro-Rehabilitation of HIV-Associated Neurocognitive Disorders: Case Reports of A New Computer-Based Restorative Approach In 3 Hiv-Positive Cart-Treated Patients

Prof. Glyn Humphreys' Obituary

Professor Glyn Humphreys was born 28 December 1954 and passed away 14 January 2016. Prof. Glyn Humphreys's early career was spent at the University of Bristol from where he was awarded his B.Sc. (1976) and Ph.D. (1980) in Psychology. At the early age of 24, Glyn was appointed to his first lectureship in the Department of Psychology in Birkbeck College, University of London. Almost all of his students were older than him! Through intellect and hard work, he made rapid academic progress, and was appointed as Professor of Psychology in 1988. While at Birkbeck, he was appointed the Ronald Tress Prize for advancements in his field, the first of many such awards. During his time in Birkbeck an equally important step in his life was made by meeting his wife Jane. Both of them moved to the University of Birmingham in 1989 where Glyn became the Head of the Department of Psychology, a position that kept for 15 years steering the department to the elite of institutes in the UK and worldwide. Most recently Glyn was the Watts Professor and Head of Experimental Psychology Department in Oxford University. Glyn's contributions to research were enormous: he contributed to many areas including cognitive psychology, cognitive neuropsychology, computational modeling, social cognitive neuroscience, neuro-rehabilitation and cognitive diagnostics. Most notably his work on understanding the cognitive effects of stroke led to the development of the Birmingham Cognitive Screen in 2012. Glyn was also the president of Experimental Psychology Society from 2002 to 2004 and editor of three international journals. Glyn's work was recognized by numerous awards from the British Psychological Society (Spearman Medal, 1986, Cognitive Section Prize, 1999, President's award, 1999, Cognitive Section award, 2012), Humboldt Research, 1998, Royal Society (Wolfson merit award, 2007), University of Hong Kong (Distinguished Visiting Professor award, 2013) and European Society for Cognitive Psychology (Broadbent Prize for Cognitive Psychology, 2013). He was a fellow of the Royal Society of Medicine, the Humboldt Foundation, Ecoles des Hautes Etudes en Sciences Sociales and the British Academy. He was awarded an Honorary Life Fellowship of the Belgian Association for Psychological Science in 2002 and the British Psychological Society in 2012. Most recently, Glyn was awarded a Lifetime Achievement Award by the British Psychological Society in 2015. Glyn was a giant in research and he collaborated with huge number of researchers from all over the world including Birkbeck, Birmingham, Oxford. His lab was notable for its “family feeling,” where new ideas were encouraged, fostered and supported. He was a mentor rather than supervisor, and his generous nature inspired those around him to aim higher, to think deeper, to be more responsible, to respect colleagues, to be compassionate and kind. Notably, the neuropsychological patients he worked with felt so respected and honored by him that they felt privileged to contribute to his research. In short Prof. Glyn Humphreys was a giant in science, humanity and kindness, and inspiration to many individuals around the globe. Glyn survived by his wife Jane, his daughter Katie, his sons Iain and Alec and his grandchildren, Madeleine, Jake and Freddie.

Editorial: Non-invasive Brain Stimulation and Plasticity Changes in Aging.

Editorial: Non-invasive Brain Stimulation and Plasticity Changes in Aging.