Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency Research Articles

Teaching Listening Comprehension: Some Important Aspects for Material Development and Teaching Techniques

The paper discusses aspects of spoken language that should be considered in the development of teaching materials, and proposes a few techniques for teaching listening comprehension. It starts with an overview of important characteristics of spoken discourse, which include phonology, accents, prosodic features, speech rate, and discourse structure. It then argues that spoken input varies according to two major distinctions, namely CALP (Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency) and BICS (Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills) and that efforts should be directed to the former if the materials are intended for academic purposes. It maintains that the materials should incorporate aspects of strategies for listening that help learners overcome comprehension barriers and gain the most from the spoken input. Some principal considerations in grading listening materials are presented according to five parameters, which include linguistic characteristics, explicitness, organization, content and context. Finally, the paper proposes a few teaching techniques that promote strategic listening comprehension for EFL learners of intermediate up to preadvanced level in an academic setting. Keywords: teaching, listening, strategies, material development

De ELE al desarrollo de la CALP y de la metacompetencia bilingüe

El trabajo se propone ilustrar la investigación que ha llevado a la ideación, diseño y desarrollo del proyecto LI.LO (acrónimo de Lengua Italiana y Lengua de Origen), dirigido a estudiantes de ciudadanía no italiana nacidos en Italia, de entre 11 y 14 años, cuya lengua de origen sea el español. El proyecto tiene como objetivo el desarrollo, por parte de los estudiantes, de<br />la competencia que en literatura especializada se llama Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency, es decir, la habilidad de manipular la lengua y los conceptos más abstractos, en contextos de estudio. La metodología adoptada en la primera fase ha previsto la suministración de pruebas de lengua y de las disciplinas en los dos idiomas objeto del estudio (italiano y<br />español) y de una biografía lingüística. El resultado de los test han puesto de relieve que los estudiantes de origen hispanohablante han obtenido puntuaciones inferiores tanto con respecto a sus compañeros italianos, como respecto a la competencia lingüística y académica en su lengua de<br />origen. La metodología usada en la segunda fase es la del taller, llevado a cabo en el aula de informática en modalidad blended, a través del uso de una plataforma creada ad hoc para el curso. Los resultados del análisis de la segunda fase han evidenciado que el curso LI.LO. ha sido útil para desarrollar la CALP en las habilidades de comprensión en ambas lenguas y en las habilidades de uso de la lengua, con especial significado en la lengua italiana.

South Asian students' needs for Cantonese and written Chinese in Hong Kong: a linguistic study

Based on qualitative data obtained from 15 South Asian (SA) B.Ed. (EL) (Bachelor of Education in English Language) students, this study reports on SA students' difficulty in mastering Mandarin-based written Chinese and the vernacular Cantonese in Hong Kong. For convenience, SA here also refers to students whose homeland is the Philippines. Since Britain's return of sovereignty to China on 1 July 1997, the language policy of post-colonial Hong Kong is characterised by biliteracy and trilingualism (兩文三語): the ability to read and write Chinese and English and to speak Cantonese, English and Putonghua/Mandarin. Unlike during the colonial era, much greater significance is now accorded to Chinese literacy, but SA students' poor performance in written Chinese and Cantonese defies such social expectations. A lack of Chinese literacy is a major stumbling block towards gaining access to educational and career opportunities. This raises two ethical issues: social inequality resulting from a lack of a level-playing field and denial of opportunities for social mobility through education. Implications of our empirical findings will be briefly discussed in light of Cummins' interdependency hypothesis on the development of basic interpersonal communicative skills and cognitive academic language proficiency in Chinese.

Cognition and the Language of Learning in South Africa: A Grade 10 Economics Perspective

In South Africa an increasing number of learners are taught through the medium of English. Limited English proficiency (LEP) learners who enter classes where English is the language of learning, encounter serious problems in coping with their academic work. These learners have usually acquired informal, colloquial language or Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills (BICS), but lack Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP). The primary aim of this article is to explore the language dilemma which Grade ten LEP learners' experience. From these findings, recommendations are made concerning ways in which educators can support English language acquisition in the context of the learning areas for which they are responsible. In this study the focus is on LEP learners in the Economics classroom. Although Economics has its own "language" or terminology, concepts are explained in English by the educator, as it is the language of learning. The researcher is a lecturer in the methodology of Economics, and became aware of the language problems of LEP learners while evaluating his student educators in the school setting.

’n Behoefte-analise met die oog op die ontwerp van ’n Taal vir Spesifieke Doeleindes (TSD)-kursus vir leerderonderwysers met Afrikaans as tweede taal

’n Behoefte-analise met die oog op die ontwerp van ’n Taal vir Spesifieke Doeleindes (TSD)-kursus vir leerderonderwysers met Afrikaans as tweede taal

The Effects of Bilingualism and Language Attitudes on Algerian Students’ Academic Proficiency in Medical Sciences

This study examines learners’ Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency and Basic Interpersonal Communicative Skills in L2 in order to determine the accuracy level of French oral language proficiency and academic achievement of students in Medical sciences (Tlemcen University). Adopting a few sociolinguistic research tools, the researcher has obtained some results confirming that students often lag behind in academic performance due to the delay in the development of Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP) and to the complexity of bilingual language acquisition despite their apparent language fluency which reflects their achievement in Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills interpreted as communicative success. Another important aim in this research was to analyze the effects of students’ attitudes towards French.

Onset and expansion of L2 cognitive academic language proficiency in bilingual settings: CALP in CLIL

This paper sets out to trace the appearance and evolution of academic language structures in a second language, in formal bilingual contexts. The setting of the study was a selection of secondary schools where a content and language integrated approach (CLIL immersion-type programmes) was set up. A corpus was formed of 244 historical narratives, from 4 schools, of subjects from 9th to 12th grade (age range 13–17 years). Analytical software tools such as Synlex (Lu, 2010) were used to consider the evolution of complex syntax and cohesion. The study concludes with observations pertaining to the growth of cognitive academic language proficiency (CALP) in content-driven learning settings, the non-linear development of the L2 system and the major metrics which undergo change over the period.

Polyphony and Polygraphy: African First-Language Speakers As Learner-Writers at a Private School in South Africa

The Telkom Foundation, the corporate social responsibility (CSR) arm of the telecommunications giant in South Africa, funded twenty learners from previously disadvantaged schools to enrol and study at a private school called the International School of South Africa (ISSA) in 2008. Upon enrolment, learners took a proficiency test and results thereof indicated they lacked cognitive academic language proficiency (CALP) skills, especially in reading and writing. The current multi-method longitudinal case study used a questionnaire for the participants, consultations with the learners’ parents, an examination of the ISSA entry and exit syllabuses, and observations to assess the participants’ language needs. Error analysis, together with contrastive analysis, provided the theoretical framework. One finding was that the participants’ change-over from mother-tongue instruction to using English as the LoLT had been done prematurely when the learners had not yet acquired sufficient academic cognitive skills. The findings suggest that intervention that could empower the participants and accommodate the learners’ transcultural experiences is enhanced through a needs analysis and use of a relevant and efficient syllabus. DOI: 10.5901/mjss.2014.v5n14p319

Bilingualism or Biliteracy: Predicting the Interdependence of BICS and CALP in Learning English as an L3

This study examined the performance of two different groups of bilinguals (dominant bilinguals vs. balanced biliterate/bilinguals) in two sets of skills, that is, BICS (Basic Interpersonal Communicative Skill) and CALP (Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency). It was hypothesized that different types of bilinguals perform differently on tests of reading as CALP and speaking as BICS. A total number of 96 senior learners of English as an L3 within the age range of 21-24 participated in this study. Fifty two (28 female, 24 male) were fully biliterate Kurdish-Arabic EFL learners from Salahaddin University in Kurdistan, Iraq and the remaining 44 (12 female, 32 male) were Kurdish-Persian bilingual learners of English from Kurdistan University in Kurdistan, Iran. Data was collected through a highly reliable linguistic background questionnaire and the reading and speaking tests of the First Certificate in English (FCE). Results submitted to a series of two-way ANOVA statistical test indicated that bilingual subjects performed better than biliterates in reading. On the other hand, no statistically significant difference was observed between the two groups with regard to their performance in BICS. In addition, findings indicated no significant interaction between linguistic background and gender of the participants as it impacted performance in L3 tasks. Findings are discussed in relation to the effect of active use of languages in the community, and the differential effect of degrees of bilingualism on L3 acquisition.

Formation of foreign communicative competence of adult immigrants in the USA

ABSTRACT The necessity of forming foreign communicative competence of adult immigrants has been substantiated. The topicality of this issue for Ukraine has been defined. The experience of Global Talent Bridge, an initiative of World Education Services that is dedicated to helping skilled immigrants fully utilize their talents and education in the United States, concerning formation of adult immigrants’ communicative competence has been analyzed. It has been defined that their research concerning organization and realization of contextualized education of adult immigrants aimed at the formation of communicative competence in the process of learning English as a second language has positive results and can be used as a basis for formation of communicative competence of Ukrainian emigrants. Principles of communicative approach to learning a language and the essence of learning for specific purposes have been defined. It has been determined that the education of adult immigrants aimed at the formation of communicative competence is sure to presuppose the availability of contextualized curriculum. The definition of contextualized curriculum has been given. It has been stated that in the process of its elaboration it is necessary to take into consideration the aim of immigrants’ language learning, the priority of fluency and proficiency of language, principles of learning a foreign language by adults, communicative aspect of learning a language, the necessity of forming skills of Basic Interpersonal Communication and Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency; usage of special tests for checking skills of communicative competence, different types of lessons for proficient knowledge of everyday English as a second language.

Assessment of International Students Through the Medium of English: Ensuring Validity and Fairness in Content-Based Examinations

International assessments in a wide range of subjects are being prepared for and delivered through the medium of English in a variety of educational contexts. These assessments are taken by many candidates whose first language is not necessarily English. This raises important issues relating to assessment validity and fairness. This study describes an analysis of the linguistic demands in the Cambridge International General Certificate of Secondary Education (IGCSE)—a major high-stakes qualification for 16-year-olds. The focus of the study is IGCSE History, Biology, and Geography. Data for analysis includes syllabuses, question papers, mark schemes, and candidate performances. Findings suggest that each subject necessarily requires academic language (Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency) and some of the key academic language skills are identified. An average language proficiency level of B2 on the Common European Framework of References for Languages (CEFR) is useful to access typical IGCSE exams, and CEFR level of C1 could provide an added advantage of linguistic resources to be able to develop arguments needed for higher grades for Humanities subjects such as History and Geography. The outcomes have contributed to the question writing process and have informed the construction of a toolkit for content and language teachers.

Semiotic Reading and the RSI: In Search of The Lost Symbol in the Penal Colony

This article offers a semiotic trip in search of The Lost Symbol in Washington DC, designed with the esoteric codes of the secret teachings of all ages scattered around. During his twelve-hour night journey the protagonist, a professor of symbolic codes and a highly experienced academic in the field of the esoteric codes, emerges illuminated as he assumes to have found the secret codes that could change disastrous human destiny right round into a more benevolent, promising one. By studying the intersemiotic nature of The Lost Symbol in terms of the secret teachings of all ages given in contrast to the religious doctrines this article explores in depth how effectively readers can develop cognitive academic language proficiency (CALP). As the semiotic reading approach offers a critical reading strategy, readers will be able to follow the consecutive steps presented in line with the principles of the Reading Strategy Instruction (RSI). DOI: 10.5901/jesr.2013.v3n3p329

An item and construct bias analysis of two language versions of a verbal analogies scale

The Woodcock Muñoz Language Survey is a test of cognitive academic language proficiency that has been adapted from English into Xhosa by a South African team of researchers. This study was primarily concerned with the Verbal Analogies Scale of the Woodcock Muñoz Language Survey and aimed to extend previous research on the equivalence of the two language versions of the scale. The study employed a monolingual two-group design consisting of 150 mainly English-speaking and 149 mainly Xhosa learners in Grades 6 and 7. The first research objective was to investigate item bias (or differential item functioning items) in the Visual Analogies Scale across the Xhosa and English versions using logistic regression and Mantel–Haenszel statistical techniques. Five items were identified as differential item functioning. The second objective was to evaluate the construct equivalence of the two versions by conducting a factor analysis after removing the differential item functioning items from the scale. Two factors were identified. The first factor displayed significant loadings across both language versions. The second factor was stable for the English version but not for the Xhosa version. Results were supported by calculating a Tucker’s phi coefficient for both factors. It was therefore concluded that Factor 1 is structurally equivalent across the two language versions but that Factor 2 was not structurally equivalent. Thus, the detection and removal of differential item functioning items did not result in structural equivalence.

A language plan for primary school teacher education

This paper introduces a different perspective on the grouping of teacher trainees for purposes of language study and reports on the current experimental application of a new first year language curriculum at the Durban College of Education. This language curriculum is designed to provide a legitimate and tenable basis for the grouping of students for purposes of language study accommodate students' particular language needs address the problem of deficient cognitive academic language proficiency of tertiary students. Before explaining the structure and implementation of the curriculum, I shall briefly indicate the macrolinguistic perspectives that triggered the attempt to change the existing curriculum dramatically, and elaborate on the linguistic bases on which the design of the new curriculum rests.

Defining and Teaching Academic Language: Developments in K‐12 ESL

The concept of academic language (also referred to as academic English) has developed substantially in the 30 years since Cummins introduced the distinction between basic interpersonal communication skills (BICS) and cognitive academic language proficiency (CALP). Cummins’ (1979, 1981, 2000a) work explains why English language learners (ELs) may acquire basic conversational fluency in English quickly but require substantially longer to acquire academic language. The BICS/CALP framework has also influenced pedagogy, particularly by promoting highly contextualized teaching of academic content. More recent work drawing on linguistic approaches, including corpus linguistics and Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL), provides insights into the specific features of language used in school settings. Pedagogical approaches emphasizing explicit language instruction and plentiful opportunities for oral and written language practice show promise for assuring that ELs can develop academic language proficiency. Given the need to address the academic achievement of the growing population of ELs, it is important for teachers to expand their concept of academic language instruction to include these approaches.

Maths beyond pictures

We all fall into the same trap, sometimes. It is an easy thing to do when teaching pupils in the later stages of learning English as an additional language (EAL). We find ourselves assuming that, because they can communicate all of their needs, participate in all playground games, follow instructions to the same extent as their peers, and chat away all day long (perhaps they are the ones that never stop), then they must also be able to cope with the language demands of the classroom. We are aware of their grammatical errors in English because it is evident in their writing, and we work hard to support them in this. But what about their learning in other subjects? Studies show that EAL pupils often underachieve more in maths than in English, proving the extent to which the subject is about language. This is an area in which many teachers require further support. We are using children’s conversational fluency to overestimate their cognitive academic language proficiency (CALP), that is, the language they have available to them for academic study. As it usually takes between five and seven years for an EAL pupil’s CALP to reach that of an average first language English speaker, the primary years are a crucial time for its development, and a time when it should always be assumed that extra language support is needed. The old EAL adage of using visual images and culturally-relevant examples, while important, is not enough.

CLIL for CALP in the multilingual, pluricultural, globalized knowledge society: Experiences and backgrounds to L2 English usage among Latin American L1 Spanish-users

An important aspect of preparing learners for the globalized “knowledge society” is the development of (cognitive) academic language proficiency (CALP) in an L2 for use in postgraduate and/or professional environments. This small-scale study sought trends in acquisition and usage of English as an L2 amongst Latin American L1 Spanish-users. Among other findings, although stronger informal conversional skills (BICS) correlated with early exposure/instruction, many participants who came to English relatively late in life for use in postgraduate/professional situations had been able to develop sufficient CALP for success, although reporting significant challenges in L2 CALP development perceived as related to underdeveloped L1 CALP, despite L1 tertiary educational experience. Further investigation is vital, but there is a clear need to consider the non-linguistic (as well as linguistic) elements that play a role in the development of CALP for different purposes and at different levels, in both the L1 and any L2, amongst learners in different contexts.

Assessing Diverse Students With Autism Spectrum Disorders

Assessing Diverse Students With Autism Spectrum Disorders

The case for bilingual language tests: a study of test adaptation and analysis

The justification for the use of language tests in education in multilingual and multicultural societies needs to include both the aims of bilingual education, and evidence that the international standards for tests that are available in two or more languages are being met. In multilingual and multicultural societies, language tests, for example, can play an important role in the implementation and monitoring of additive bilingual education, or developmental maintenance bilingual programmes (MBE). MBE is contrasted with transitional bilingual education (TBE). One such programme of MBE for isiXhosa-speaking children in the rural areas of South Africa is currently being implemented. A test of cognitive academic language proficiency, the Woodcock Muñoz Language Survey, was selected to research the language outcomes of the project. This test is used widely in the USA for the evaluation of bilingual programmes, and is available in Spanish and English. After receiving permission for the test to be adapted into isiXhosa, a team of translators, educators, linguists and a psychometrist started the process of adapting the test into isiXhosa. In the language of the International Test Commission's Guidelines for Adaptating Educational and Psychological Tests (ITC, 2000), the challenge is to ensure the linguistic equivalence of the two versions of the tests, and to provide evidence of the statistical equivalence of the two versions of the test. The English version was also adapted for the South African context. This study will report on the processes that were followed during the workshops to translate and adapt the test, a Differential Item Functioning (DIF) analysis of the items of the two versions of the test, some of the steps that were taken to address problems in the initial adaptation of the test into isiXhosa, and the results of an evaluation of the construct equivalence of the two versions.

Grade‐appropriate literacy and South African grade seven learners' classroom writing in English

This paper reports on the writing of grade seven learners in English as an additional language at four differently resourced schools in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. Because grade seven is the start of the senior phase of schooling, it is vital that learners achieve grade‐level competence in the language used as medium of instruction. Learning outcome five, which states that ‘the learner will be able to use language to think and reason, as well as access, process and use information for learning’, is particularly relevant. The primary research question asked what the writing practices in grade seven additional languages were, and how these contribute to the development of learners' writing. The findings were that literacy practices at all four schools privilege grammar exercises and personal, expressive writing. In terms of Cummins's constructs of basic interpersonal communicative skill and cognitive academic language proficiency, learners' written competencies are mainly conversational (basic interpersonal communicative skill). The personal expressive texts that predominate in learners' writing have done little to develop a formal, impersonal academic register (cognitive academic language proficiency). Learners need to become familiar with the more abstract impersonal factual genres associated with disciplinary‐based knowledge.