Climate-smart Agriculture Technologies Research Articles

Gender Dimensions in the Adoption of Climate-Smart Agriculture Technologies in Response to Climate Change Extremes in Benin

Gender Dimensions in the Adoption of Climate-Smart Agriculture Technologies in Response to Climate Change Extremes in Benin

Promoting farmers' adoption of climate-smart agricultural technologies in Burkina Faso: the role of coordination along the value chain

Promoting farmers' adoption of climate-smart agricultural technologies in Burkina Faso: the role of coordination along the value chain

Promoting farmers' adoption of climate-smart agricultural technologies in Burkina Faso: the role of coordination along the value chain

Promoting farmers' adoption of climate-smart agricultural technologies in Burkina Faso: the role of coordination along the value chain

Assessment of vegetable production by adopting climate SMART agriculture technologies in Chormara, Nawalparasi district, Nepal

Vegetable production is an economic booster contributing around 9.71% to total Agricultural Gross Domestic Production. So, the research study was performed under the topic “Assessment of vegetable production adopting climate-smart agriculture technologies in Chormara, Nawalparasi district” from March- April 2021 to assess the production of selected vegetables i.e. Cucumber, Tomato, Bitter Gourd, Sponge Gourd, and Chilly adopting climate-smart agriculture technology among 100 households applying simple random sampling. The study revealed that 96% of the total respondents were being affected directly by the ongoing climate change and to tackle such scenario 88% of the total respondents were adopting climate SMART Agricultural technologies including mulching, drip irrigation, cultivation of vegetables under the semi-protected house, quality seeds, etc. to mitigate the negative impacts of climate change with increased crop production. To enhance the productivity of vegetables and meet the food security of the increasing global population, farmers were integrating organic and synthetic fertilizers to attain the sustainability of soil health. It was found that 76% of the surveyed farmers were going through market hindrances like lack of proper market, fluctuation in price structure, and poor marketing channel suggesting an immediate need for a proper marketing system in the study area. The highest net return of USD 17588.53 per hectare and B:C ratio of 5.88 in tomatoes illustrated economic viability in vegetable production. Although vegetable production and marketing in Chormara seem a profitable business, the study suggests an immediate need for adoption and scaling up of successful CSA practices, its extension and proper implementation along with the provision of effective marketing channel and setting of minimum prices for the vegetable products based on the cost of cultivation that may overcome the farmer’s problems.

A Review between Climate Smart Agriculture Technology Objectives’ Synergies and Tradeoffs

A Review between Climate Smart Agriculture Technology Objectives’ Synergies and Tradeoffs

Uptake of Climate Smart Agriculture in Peri-Urban Areas of South Africa's Economic Hub Requires Up-Scaling

Climate variability and change impact significantly on food security and the livelihoods of smallholder farmers making it necessary for the farmers to prioritize investment in adaptation and mitigation approaches, such as climate smart agriculture, to enhance resilience. Climate smart agriculture approaches have been adopted in many countries around the world to address the adverse impacts of climate change on agricultural production. There is limited information about climate smart agriculture adoption by peri-urban farmers in developing countries. The present study aimed to assess the extent to which agricultural activities by smallholder crop farmers in the City of Tshwane Metropolitan Municipality in Gauteng province of South Africa are climate smart, and to establish the sustainable measures to be put in place to enhance the adoption of climate smart agriculture. The study made use of a mixed method design combining qualitative and quantitative approaches. A combination of simple random and non-probability sampling techniques was employed to select the study locations and identify respondents. A sample of thirty-six farmers were selected for the study. The main findings revealed overwhelming awareness of climate change and the impacts thereof on crop productivity and yields. However, the respondents' level of awareness of climate smart agriculture technologies was generally low. Despite the lack of knowledge of climate smart agriculture practices, the farmers were, to an extent, utilizing adaptation mechanisms acquired from indigenous systems or scientific knowledge. Examples of these practices include mulching, cover cropping, crop rotation and use of crop varieties. The study concludes that much more can be done to scale up the uptake of climate smart agriculture in the Gauteng province. The study recommends formal and informal strategies including one-on-one extension programs to raise the awareness of climate smart agriculture technologies appropriate to the unique conditions of the farmers.

Land Tenurial System Influence Among Smallholder Farmers’ Climate Smart Agriculture Technologies Adoption: Sub-Sahara Africa. A Review Paper

Climate variability and extremes are very a great deal affecting lives in Sub-Saharan Africa. Nevertheless, where people are poor and vulnerable like in this region, these factors can add greatly to the hardship of their lives. Over the years climate versions and climate change are amongst the challenges the world face together with Sub-Sahara Africa nations. Climate-smart agriculture technologies provide efficient answers (i.e. increased productivity more advantageous family income, resilience and decreased greenhouse gasoline emissions). Smallholder farmers are the primary and secondary pillars of the agricultural sectors’, especially in low-income countries. Therefore, their involvement in climate change mitigation and adaption moves is imperative. Climate-smart agriculture applied sciences are looking for a manageable and greater secure earnings sustainability. This study aims to provide an overview of how the land tenure system affects climate-smart agriculture technologies adoption in Sub-Sahara Africa countries. Based on findings from selected articles, socioeconomic factors (e.g. access to credit, poor extension services, and inputs) and institutional factors (e.g. land tenure system, land scarcity) are major challenges to climate-smart agriculture technologies adoption, the major message is site-specific due to heterogeneity of smallholder farmers. Furthermore, it is worth mentioning land-use security is a critical factor of climate-smart technologies adoption among smallholder farmers. Full-time farming is a commitment that positively beautifies the adoption of climate clever agriculture mainly if the land is tightly closed and some practices take greater than one year to comprehend advantages (i.e. to achieve economic and environmental benefits). Keywords: Climate-smart agriculture, climate, agriculture, land, tenure, adoption, sustainability. DOI: 10.7176/JBAH/11-23-03 Publication date: December 31 st 2021

Community-Level Impacts of Climate-Smart Agriculture Interventions on Food Security and Dietary Diversity in Climate-Smart Villages in Myanmar

Diversification of production to strengthen resilience is a key tenet of climate-smart agriculture (CSA), which can help to address the complex vulnerabilities of agriculture-dependent rural communities. In this study, we investigated the relationship between the promotion of different CSA practices across four climate-smart villages (CSVs) in Myanmar. To determine the impact of the CSA practices on livelihoods and health, survey data were collected from agricultural households (n = 527) over three years. Within the time period studied, the results indicate that some the CSA practices and technologies adopted were significantly associated with changes in household dietary diversity scores (HDDS), but, in the short-term, these were not associated with improvements in the households’ food insecurity scores (HFIAS). Based on the survey responses, we examined how pathways of CSA practice adoption tailored to different contexts of Myanmar’s four agroecologies could contribute to the observed changes, including possible resulting trade-offs. We highlight that understanding the impacts of CSA adoption on household food security in CSVs will require longer-term monitoring, as most CSA options are medium- to long-cycle interventions. Our further analysis of knowledge, attitudes and practices (KAPs) amongst the households indicated a poor understanding of the household knowledge, attitudes and practices in relation to nutrition, food choices, food preparation, sanitation and hygiene. Our KAP findings indicate that current nutrition education interventions in the Myanmar CSVs are inadequate and will need further improvement for health and nutrition outcomes from the portfolio of CSA interventions.

Effective Mainstreaming of Agricultural Emissions into Climate Action Agenda: The Case of Institutions and Smallholder Dairy Production Systems, Western Kenya

Small-scale farming production systems are integral drivers of global sustainability challenges and the climate crisis as well as a solution space for the transition to climate compatible development. However, mainstreaming agricultural emissions into a climate action agenda through integrative approaches, such as Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA), largely reinforces adaptation–mitigation dualism and pays inadequate attention to institutions’ linkage on the generation of externalities, such as Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions. This may undermine the effectiveness of local–global climate risk management initiatives. Literature data and a survey of small-scale farmers’ dairy feeding strategies were used in the simulation of GHG emissions. The effect of price risks on ecoefficiencies or the amount of GHG emissions per unit of produced milk is framed as a proxy for institutional feedbacks on GHG emissions and effect at scale. This case study on small-scale dairy farmers in western Kenya illustrates the effect of local-level and sectoral-level institutional constraints, such as market risks on decision making, on GHG emissions and the effectiveness of climate action. The findings suggest that price risks are significant in incentivising the adoption of CSA technologies. Since institutional interactions influence the choice of individual farmer management actions in adaptation planning, they significantly contribute to GHG spillover at scale. This can be visualised in terms of the nexus between low or non-existent dairy feeding strategies, low herd productivity, and net higher methane emissions per unit of produced milk in a dairy value chain. The use of the Sustainable Food Value Chain (SFVC) analytical lens could mediate the identification of binding constraints, foster organisational and policy coherence, as well as broker the effective mainstreaming of agricultural emissions into local–global climate change risk management initiatives. Market risks thus provide a systematic and holistic lens for assessing alternative carbon transitions, climate financing, adaptation–mitigation dualism, and the related risk of maladaptation, all of which are integral in the planning and implementation of effective climate action initiatives.

Climate-Smart Agriculture Technologies for the Sahel and Horn of Africa. Clearinghouse Technical Report Series 009

This catalogue describes a suite of farming solutions for drylands in the Sahel and Horn of Africa useful to climate change adaptation and mitigation. It is based upon the interventions of the Technologies for African Agricultural Transformation Program ( TAAT ). This program is led by the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture ( IITA ) that has pioneered new approaches for the deployment of proven technologies to African farmers. TAAT arose as a common effort of IITA and the African Development Bank (AfDB), and is an important component of the latter’s Feed Africa Strategy. TAAT is currently advancing over 76 technologies through 88 interventions in 28 countries including nine countries in the Sahelian agro-ecological zone: Burkina Faso, Chad, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Senegal, South Sudan, Sudan and Ethiopia. Innovations brokered by TAAT and featured in this catalogue also extend to countries located in the Horn of Africa (Djibouti, Eritrea, Somalia and Somaliland) as an extension of the Sahel. This zone is hugely impacted by climate change in terms of intensified drought and extreme weather, and this catalogue combines TAAT technologies that are useful within climate action efforts, including those being organized by The African Development Bank. TAAT organized around 15 “Compacts” that represent priorities in terms of achieving Africa’s potential in achieving food security and advancing its role in global agricultural trade. Nine of these Compacts relate to specific priority value chains of rice, wheat, maize, sorghum and millet, cassava, sweet potato, bean, fish and small livestock. Weaknesses in the production of commodities are viewed as responsible for Africa’s food insecurity, need for excessive importation of food, and unrealized expansion of Africa’s food exports. This catalogue assists in the designing toolkits for rural development projects in African drylands and is intended for extension supervisors, project managers and investors. The Programme for Integrated Development and Adaptation to Climate Change in the Niger Basin (PIDACC) operates through the Niger River Authority to directly address climate change adaptation and livelihood improvement in Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Cote D’Ivoire, Guinea, Mali, Niger, Nigeria, and Chad. This catalogue was produced in part to contribute to its training efforts. Sahelian farmers that adopt and exchange improved crop varieties, proactively manage pest outbreaks, better utilize water resources, and maintain soil fertility are in a much stronger position to secure food and income for their families and participate in meaningful climate actions. Sustainable intensification of dryland agriculture generates mitigative effects by increased biomass productivity and standing carbon stocks leading to carbon sequestration in soil organic matter, actions that further avoid greenhouse gas emissions from fertilizers the Horn of Africa is an AfDB regional project to deploy proven climate-smart agriculture technologies in Djibouti, Ethiopia, Kenya, Somalia, South Sudan, and Sudan. This catalogue is intended to assist it to improve agro-sylvo-pastoral productivity and profits and enhance the adaptive capacity of the populations to better prepare for and manage climate risks. An important outcome of better managed and more productive lands is to reduce human conflicts in some of its countries. TAAT partners with the Horn of Africa to provide technical backstopping.

Adoption of complementary climate-smart agricultural technologies: lessons from Lushoto in Tanzania

BackgroundAgriculture is important for economic growth and development in many countries in Sub-Saharan Africa, including Tanzania. However, agricultural production and productivity remain relatively low, with significant yield gaps attributed to factors such as limited access to and low adoption of appropriate agricultural technologies, and climate-related risks resulting from climate variability and change. This paper explores the drivers of adoption of climate-smart agricultural (CSA) technologies and practices, taking into account the complementarity among agricultural technologies and heterogeneity of the farm households, using data from Lushoto in Tanzania.MethodsWe use a Multivariate Probit analysis of cross-sectional data collected from 264 smallholder farmers in Lushoto—a climate hotspot in Tanzania—to understand the drivers of household decisions to adopt CSA technologies and practices. The technologies included diversification of multiple stress (drought, floods, pests, diseases)-tolerant crop varieties, use of fertilizers, and application of herbicides and pesticides. The Multivariate Probit model was preferred as it takes into account the inter-relationships of the technologies as well as heterogeneity of the smallholder farmers for more robust estimates. The independent variables used in the analysis included household socio-economic factors such as the relative importance of crop and livestock enterprises, household land size, social capital, access to agricultural credit and weather information, previous experience with fertilizer use and household characteristics (age, education and gender of household head, and household size).ResultsAbout 63% of the households diversified their crop enterprises, shifting to improved resilient crops and crop varieties. Another 37% adopted fertilizers, while 38% applied pesticides and herbicides. Conditional on the unobservable heterogeneity effects, the results show that household adoption decisions on diversification of multiple stress-tolerant crops and crop varieties, fertilizer, and pesticides and herbicides are complementary. In addition, the results confirm existence of unobserved heterogeneity effects leading to varying impact of the explanatory variables on adoption decisions among farmers with similar observable characteristics.ConclusionsThe findings indicate that any effective CSA technology adoption and diffusion strategies and policies should take into account the complementarity of the technologies and heterogeneity of the smallholder farmers. Therefore, inter-related technologies should be promoted as a package or bundled while taking into consideration household and farm-level constraints to adoption.

A Review of Climate-Smart Agriculture Technology Adoption by Farming Households in Sub-Saharan Africa

Climate change is a major constraint to the progress of Africa’s agriculture, food, and nutrition security; its effect is tied to geographical position and driven by the limited adaptive capacity of the agricultural households. The most vulnerable stakeholder group are the smallholder farming households with limited resources and knowledge of adaptation and mitigation techniques. Sub-Saharan Africa owns more than 60% of the world’s arable land with over 85% of the farmers being smallholder farmers, who are predisposed to various risks. This paper analyzes the adoption of climate-smart agriculture (CSA) processes and technologies by smallholder farming households in Sub-Saharan Africa. The study used mixed methods and an integrative literature review. This review indicated that the knowledge of CSA technologies by smallholder farmers in Africa is increasing and, thus, concerted efforts to continuously generate CSA technology would contribute to the desired positive outcome. To accelerate the pace of adoption and use of the technologies, the linkage of farmers, researchers, and extension practitioners is needed. Measures should also be put in place to ensure that CSA actions are implemented using bottom-up approaches.

Assessing Climate Change Impacts and Prioritizing Adaptation Measures Using Climate-Smart Agriculture Rapid Appraisal (CSA-RA): A Case Study in Thuong Bang La Commune, Van Chan District, Yen Bai Province

Overwhelming scientific evidence shows agriculture is heavily impacted by negative climate change effects. While agriculture is affected, the sector is also the second-largest contributor to climate change, creating challenges in adaptation and mitigation strategies. Climate-smart agriculture (CSA) is a holistic approach to managing landscapes, utilized to guide farmers in the context of a changing climate. CSA is an attractive option for Vietnam, an agricultural country extremely vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. Farmers and communities in Vietnam are facing significant risks. Changes in farming conditions, climate, and productivity threaten agriculture and livelihoods. The aim of the current study was to assess the effects of climate change on the people and agricultural systems in Thuong Bang La (TBL) commune, Vietnam, utilizing climate-smart agriculture rapid appraisal (CSA-RA) tools. The results indicated that agricultural production has been negatively impacted, with erratic and varied weather patterns causing outbreaks of disease, and reductions in the yield and productivity of livestock and cropping systems. Disasters including flooding, storms, and droughts are a prominent threat, leaving farmers unsure of how to cope. Through a showcase of CSA technologies, farmers were able to highlight their preferences for practices including mulching, drip irrigation and conservation agriculture in orange groves, bio-fertilizers and integrated pest management (IPM) in rice production, and using biological bedding in chicken raising. The study showed immediate openings to initiate context-specific CSA interventions and building the resilience of the agricultural systems in the development of one of the first climate-smart communes in Vietnam.

Constraints for adopting climate-smart agricultural practices among smallholder farmers in Southeast Kenya

CONTEXTClimate uncertainty challenges the livelihoods of smallholder farmers in sub-Saharan Africa. Awareness of climate-smart agricultural (CSA) practices and access to climate-smart technologies are key factors in determining the utilization of farm and land management practices that may simultaneously decrease greenhouse gas emissions, increase the adaptive capacity of farmers, and improve food security. OBJECTIVEUnderstanding how biophysical and socio-economic constraints affect the adoption of CSA practices and technologies plays an essential role in policy and intervention planning. Our objective was to identify these constraints among smallholder farmers in Taita Taveta County of Southeast Kenya across varying agro-ecological zones. METHODSWe conducted a Climate-Smart Agriculture Rapid Appraisal that consisted of four mostly gender-disaggregated smallholder farmer workshops (102 participants), a household survey (65 participants), key-informant interviews (16 informants), and four transect walks. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONSOur results indicate a dissonance in the perceived awareness of CSA practices and utilization of CSA technologies between state actors and farmers. State actors emphasize lack of awareness as a barrier to adoption, while farmers express knowledgeability regarding environmental change and climate-smart practices but are confined by limitations and restrictions posed by e.g. market mechanisms, land tenure issues, and lack of resources. These restrictions include e.g. uncertainty in product prices, lack of land ownership, scarcity of arable land, and simply lack of capital or willingness to invest. Farmers are further challenged by the emergence of new pests and human–wildlife conflicts. Our research findings are based on the contextual settings of Taita Taveta County, but the results indicate that adopting CSA practices and utilizing technologies, especially in sub-Saharan regions that are heavily based on subsistence agriculture with heterogenous agro-ecological zones, require localized and gender-responsive solutions in policy formation and planning of both agricultural extension services and development interventions that take into account the agency of the farmers. SIGNIFICANCEThis study contributes to existing climate change adaptation research by increasing our understanding of how physical and socio-economic constraints can affect the adoption of new farm and land management practices, and how CSA-based intervention strategies could be restructured by local stakeholders to be more inclusive.

Small Scale Irrigation Farming Adoption as a Climate-Smart Agriculture Practice and Its Impact on Household Income in Ethiopia. A Review Paper

Small-scale irrigated farming has been offered as a climate-smart agriculture technology to boost production and diversify livelihood scenarios as an option to mitigate climate change and variability. Small-scale irrigation as a climate-smart agriculture strategy is one of the most important adaptation options for increasing agricultural production in rural areas, stabilizing agricultural production and productivity, and mitigating the negative effects of variable or insufficient rainfall. The reviewed literature showed that the adoption of small-scale irrigation farming as a climate-smart agriculture practice has a significant positive influence on farming income. Small-scale irrigation practice increases the adaptive capacity of households by enhancing farm income. Small-scale irrigation users are better off in crop production that enhances household income and enables buffer against climate variability compared with non-users. Small-scale irrigation is an important strategy in reducing risks associated with both rainfall variability production of different crops twice or three times within a year and increasing income of rural farm-households. Farmers' age, distance to market, and formal employment all negatively influence small-scale irrigation adoption. Off-farm employment, irrigation equipment, access to reliable water supplies, and awareness of water conservation practices all positively promote Small-scale irrigation adoption. As a result, governments and other key stakeholders should consider strengthening small-scale irrigated farming in rural families as climate smart agriculture. Keywords: CSA, Small-scale irrigation adoption, household income, livelihood. DOI: 10.7176/JESD/12-17-02 Publication date: September 30 th 2021

Determinants of farmers' perceptions of climate variability, mitigation, and adaptation strategies in the central highlands of Kenya

Climate variability in recent decades has intensified in the SSA region, which makes it imperative to explore adequate adaptation and mitigation strategies to offset its current and future adverse impacts. Farmers' perception of climate variability can significantly influence their coping, mitigation, and adaptation potential. This study assessed farmers' perceptions of indicators and consequences of climate variability and explored factors influencing their perception of climate variability and adoption of climate coping strategies. A cross-sectional survey design was used to sample 300 farmers in the Central Highlands of Kenya. Binary logistic regression models were used to determine factors that influenced the perception of climate variability, adaptation, and mitigation strategies based on three predictor sets, including socioeconomic, institutional, and environmental dimensions. Three climate adaptation and mitigation strategy groups adopted by farmers, including crop adjustment, nutrient management, and soil and water management practices, were subjected to binary logistic regression models. The core determinants of farmers' perception of climate variability included tropical livestock unit (TLU, p = 0.008), access to agricultural training (p = 0.022), change in agricultural production (p = 0.005), change in forest cover (p = 0.014), soil fertility status (p = 0.039), and perceptions of soil erosion (p = 0.001). Most farmers reported changes in all climatic indicators during the decade preceding the survey, including increasing temperature (80%), reduced precipitation (78%), and declining season lengths (76%). There were significant relationships between climate variability perceptions and coping strategies, with the soil and water management set showing stronger links with climate perceptions compared to crop adjustment and nutrient management strategies. Critical mitigation and adaptation strategies to cope with climate variability implemented by farmers included the use of fertilizer and manure in combination (71%), terracing (66%), and crop rotation (60%). Farmers' perceptions significantly determined the adoption of climate-smart agriculture technologies, and environmental determinants strongly influenced climate variability coping strategies. Therefore, while formulating climate sustainability-related policies, farmers' perceptions should be considered.

A Review of Climate Change Impacts on Agribusiness Value Chain in Nigeria

This paper aims to review the impact of climate change on Nigeria's agribusiness value chain. In this study, the researcher reviewed recent and popular academic journals in the area of climate change and agricultural value chains. This review process aims to strengthen the existing literature in this field of study. After carefully reviewing the literature, the paper revealed that the change in the global climate has a significant impact on the agribusiness value chain. The Nigerian agricultural value chain consists of the pre-upstream, up-stream, mid-stream, and down-stream. All the streams are directly or indirectly affected by climate change. The climate change impact varies across the value chain; it affects each stream with a different magnitude. The review also revealed that climate change has a significant effect on the food production value chain with a higher impact on pre-upstream and upstream when compared to mid and downstream. Suggestions presented in this paper include focusing on greenhouse gas reduction, practicing precision farming, using a reusable source of energy, taking advantage of IoT, and climate-smart agricultural technologies. This review will help the value chain stakeholders to understand how to achieve sustainability on the value chain and understand how to mitigate or adapt to climate change impacts.

Farmers’ preferences and willingness to pay for climate-smart agricultural technologies on rice production in Nigeria

ABSTRACT Climate change is a critical environmental issue that has threatened sustainable rice production in Nigeria. The application of climate-smart agricultural (CSA) technologies by smallholder farmers is vital for sustaining rice production in the face of climate change impacts. We investigate rice farmers’ preferences and elicit willingness to pay (WTP) for CSA technologies, using the contingent valuation method (CVM). We find that most farmers do not utilize innovative CSA technologies. The CSA technologies most preferred by farmers are drip irrigation, drainage management, and weather-based rice agro-advisories. At the same time, they are willing to pay $115.63 annually for CSA, notably: $40.25 for knowledge-smart, $31.02 for water-smart, $17.97 for nutrient-smart, $17.72 for weather-smart, $6.82 for carbon-smart, and $1.85 for energy-smart technologies. Age, gender, access to credit, education, extension visit, farm size, and social group membership are significant predictors of farmers’ choices. Key policy insights Identifying and prioritizing farmers’ preferred CSA technologies would enable them and other relevant stakeholders to make investment decisions. Given farmers’ low willingness to pay for CSA technologies, incentives such as subsidies and interest-free loans should be provided to boost uptake. Committing a substantial amount of money to credit facilities would help scale up CSA technologies’ adoption. A robust framework on the revitalization of agricultural extension services would increase extension visits, helping to scale up farmers’ adoption of CSA technologies.

Linking Farmers’ Risk Attitudes, Livelihood Diversification and Adoption of Climate Smart Agriculture in the Nyando Basin of Western Kenya

Climate smart agriculture (CSA) is an innovation meant to reduce the risks in agricultural production especially among smallholder farmers. Some of the factors that influence its adoption are farmers’ risk attitude and household livelihood diversification. This study sought to determine how risk attitude and livelihood diversification influence the adoption of CSA in the Nyando basin. The study utilized primary data gathered from 122 households in the region and employed multivariate probit (MVP), ordered probit (OP) and descriptive statistics in data analysis using Stata 14.0. The results indicated that farmers’ risk attitudes had a significant negative influence on the adoption of terraces, ridges and bunds and influenced the intensity of adoption of these CSA technologies. Household livelihood diversification significantly and negatively influenced adoption of stress tolerant livestock but not the intensity of adoption of given CSA technologies. . The government and potential donors should intensify education on CSA technologies that reduce risk in farming and how they mitigate against the effects of climate change so that more farmers can embrace them.

Adoption of climate-smart agriculture technology in drought-prone area of India – implications on farmers' livelihoods

PurposeLaser land leveling (LLL) is a climate-smart technology that improves water use efficiency and reduces risk in crop cultivation due to weather variability. Hence, this technology is useful for cultivating water-intensive crops in a sustainable way. Given this background, the state government of Karnataka initiated to promote LLL in drought-prone districts and selected Raichur district for implementation. Moreover, farmers in this district had observed drought situation during monsoon paddy growing season in 2018. Therefore, this study attempts to investigate the importance of LLL technology for paddy cultivation under drought conditions.Design/methodology/approachA primary survey with 604 farmer households had been conducted in Raichur in 2018. Among them, 50% are adopters of LLL who have been selected purposively and rest 50% are non-adopters who have grown paddy in the adjacent or nearest plot of the laser-leveled plot. The adoption and causal impact of LLL has been estimated using propensity score matching, coarsened exact matching and endogenous switching regression methods.FindingsThe result reveals a positive and significant impact of LLL on paddy yield and net returns to the farmers. The results indicate an increment of 12 and 16% in rice yield and net income, respectively, for LLL adopters in comparison to the non-adopters of LLL.Research limitations/implicationsThe major limitation of the study is that it does not adopt the method of experimental study due to certain limitations; hence, the authors employed a quasi-experimental method to look at the possible impact of adoption of LL.Originality/valueThere have been various agronomic studies focusing on the ex-ante assessment of the LLL. This study is an ex-post assessment of the technology on the crop yield and farmers' income in a dry semi-arid region of India, which, according to the authors, is the first in this approach.