City Names Research Articles

Pravopis čeških eksonimov za slovenska mesta in slovenskih za češka mesta

In the present paper, we determine the development and the current state of spelling rules for writing the names of Czech cities in Slovenian and Slovenian cities in Czech. The Slovenian orthography handbook (Slovenski pravopis) contains much more systematic and useful explanations of the ways of writing the names of foreign cities, their declension and derivation from them than the equivalent Czech handbook (Pravidla českého pravopisu). By studying specific texts, we try to determine the actual situation, the needs of users, and the best solutions for writing Slovenian and Czech exonyms. By comparing the orthography handbooks of the two languages, we arrive at a suggestion on how to improve the deficient treatment, especially in Czech orthography.

Handwritten Bangla city name word recognition using CNN-based transfer learning and FCN

Decomposition of a word into a set of appropriate pseudo-characters is a challenging task in case of a cursive script like Bangla. Segmentation-free approach bypasses the decomposition problem entirely and treats the handwritten word as an individual entity. From the literature, we found that the accuracy of handwritten Bangla cursive word recognition using segmentation-free approach is relatively low (accuracy hovers between 80% and 90%). In the current work, we aim to provide a threefold study on this particular domain. Firstly, we extract different statistical feature sets from word images and use five different off-the-shelf classifiers to delineate their performance. Then, we employ five different CNN-TL architectures, namely AlexNet, VGG-16, VGG-19, ResNet50, and GoogleNet, to understand how they perform on holistic Bangla words. Finally, we use a seven-layer FCN architecture and provide a comparison of results with all the aforementioned experimentations. We achieved an accuracy of 98.86% with ResNet50, which is nearly 19% improvement when compared with other recent state-of-the-art methodologies.

Par viduslejasvācu valodas pēdām latviešu īpašvārdos

Searching the traces of Middle Low German in Latvian proper names The great impact of Middle Low German on the Latvian language during the 13 th –16 th centuries is a well-known and rather widely researched fact. However, the main focus of linguists’ attention has so far been on the apellative vocabulary. This article therefore aims to highlight the traces of Middle Low German in Latvian proper names – placenames and personal names (both first names and surnames) – during the time of their appearance and also nowadays (also touching upon the issue of onyms that have disappeared during previous centuries). The system of Latvian personal names (as the ancient Baltic two-stem personal names gradually disappeared during the 13 th –14 th centuries) was largely built on the basis of Christian names in their Middle Low German versions. Among these Latvian names, borrowed from Middle Low German and still in use in the 21st century, we can note Ģederts , Indriķis , Jurģis , Tenis , Ints , Inta etc. In the context of placenames, one must take into account the historical diglossia that lasted until the 1st half of the 20th century. Between the German (initially Middle Low German) and Latvian names of cities, villages and manors there has been a diverse and manifold interaction. Meanwhile, in the names of farmhouses which were mostly coined in Latvian, one can observe many onymized borrowings from Middle Low German. The oldest Latvian surnames used in Riga during the 15 th –16 th centuries can sometimes be (and are) interpreted as the first documentally attested instances of some Middle Low German borrowings in the Latvian language. Among the main conclusions of this article, one can point out the fact that most Middle Low German elements have entered Latvian proper names indirectly, through borrowed common nouns. Moreover, it is essential to continue the research (especially in the field of surnames) and to reevaluate the impact of Middle Low German borrowings in the Latvian language.

Analyzing Asymmetric City Connectivity by Toponym on Social Media in China

The connectedness between cities has become one of the most widely discussed topics in urban and regional research in the mobile and big data era. One problem identified is the asymmetric city connectivity, partially due to data availability. We present a data-driven approach based on location and toponym (place name) extracted from social media data, to assess the asymmetric connectivity between cities. The assumption is that a higher frequency of occurrences of the name of city i in posts located in city j would imply that the city i is more influential than other cities upon city j. In addition, we’ve developed a group of measurements such as the relatedness index, impact index, link strength index, dependence index, and structure similar index to characterize such interactions. This framework of connectivity measurements can also be used to support smart planning taking into account the evolving interplay among cities. The space-time structure of urban systems in China is examined as the case study.

НЕКОТОРЫЕ ОСОБЕННОСТИ АББРЕВИАЦИИ В НЕМЕЦКИХ ТЕКСТАХ М. В. ЛОМОНОСОВА

The article studies cases of abbreviation in German texts by M. Lomonosov, including initials, etiquette title names, and contractions of dates, city names, measures and currency. The authors propose a lexicographic description model for presenting contracted words and phrases in the upcoming dictionary of Lomonosov’s German vocabulary. The study also focuses on methodological issues such as borders of Lomonosov’s German idiolect.

Особливості перекладу італійських топонімів українською мовою

This article systematizes the methods and problems of translating Italian toponyms into the Ukrainian language. It was determined that toponyms can be reproduced in different languages, basing on certain similarities in the sounds or graphics. It’s appropriate to convey sound similarities by transcription or reproducing the sound form by using letters. Graphic similarities should be transliterated by letters. It’s possible to apply the method of modification, which adapts the toponym to the grammatical system of the translation language. There are cases of using of the traditional name when it comes to historical traditions and the international importance of the place-name. It’s appropriate to reproduce Italian toponyms (oikonyms) by transcoding, using transcription, which will provide the adequate perception of toponyms. The resources of the Ukrainian language fully allow transmitting the sounds of Italian toponyms. Some geographical names of Italian cities and regions are translated according to agreed tradition. For example, Firenze – Флопенція, Napoli – Неаполь, Roma – Рим, Sicilia – Сицилія, Sardegna – Сардинія, Puglia – Апулія. The article also identifies the features of the formation and use of Italian place-names. It’s revealed that toponyms are at the crossroads of history, culture and language. Within translation studies, toponyms should be analyzed taking into account the significations they convey. Toponyms can be important evidence about the type of settlement or the presence of certain animals or plants in certain territory. Toponyms can also indicate historical events and social changes in a particular area. The article determines that Italian toponyms take origin from the pre-Latin language and testify to the influences of the Celtic language in northern Italy and the Greek language caused by the colonization in southern Italy, Sicily and parts of Sardinia. Toponyms document the influences of different peoples who came to Italy and were present on its territory. The naming of geographical objects, like any other reality, is due to the ability to read the linguistic nominative code. When giving a name, a person belonging to a certain language community will refer to the words and traditions of his native language.

Inscribed Bullae Found during Excavations on the Northern Slope of Ayanis Fortress in 2015 and a New Urartian Building Name, ÉTamali

The 2014 season of excavations at the Ayanis Fortress of the Urartian Kingdom, located on the eastern shore of Lake Van, revealed a trash layer on the northern slope of the fortress that contained densely packed animal bone remains as well as several inscribed bullae. During the excavations carried out in the same area in 2015 four more inscribed bullae were recovered in the northern fortification wall. This article provides information on the 2015 excavations of the outer side of the northern fortifications and trash layer at Ayanis, with a first edition of the new bullae. These short inscriptions mention the names of people, cities, countries, and professions, as is common in such Urartian bullae. The inscription on a newly discovered bulla mentioning a construction named tamali is important as it informs us about a new building unit whose function is unknown at present.

КОСТРОМСКИЕ ТОПОНИМЫ В ВОСПОМИНАНИЯХ АЛЕКСАНДРА ЗИНОВЬЕВА «В МЕДВЕЖЬЕМ УГЛУ»

The article presents a comprehensive analysis of toponymic vocabulary associated with the Kostroma region, in the memoir essay of the philosopher and writer Alexander Alexandrovich Zinoviev «In Godforsaken Place», included by the author in the book «Confessions of a Renegade». The purpose of the study is to identify the semantic and communicative-pragmatic properties of dominant toponyms which are actively involved in organizing memoir narration, forming text meanings, explicating the conceptual content of the work, creating the author's modality. The study of toponyms in contextual environment is based on the genre and stylistic features of the memoir text: the combination of two temporal plans (past and present); the combination of objective reliability and individual subjectivity. The author of the article gives a brief overview of modern linguistic studies of toponymy in the Russian speech system and presents a classification of toponyms which are subdivided in the analyzed text into placenames and hydronyms. The article characterizes toponymic dominants of the memories: the name of Kostroma city and the name of the writer’s native village Pakhtino. The author of the article presents a coherent study of the key toponyms in some parts of the memoir text. The title of the section «From Pakhtino to New York» uses contextual antonyms that first create an antithesis, and are used as a part of a gradation series, but then, in the process of developing textual semantics, form an enantiosemy, uniting opposite objects of reality: a Russian provincial village and a large American city. With the help of several stylistic devices (antitheses, gradations, enantiosemy), the writer expands the boundaries of the narrative, depicts the universal scale of events, reflects ideas about indigenous Russian spiritual values and life priorities of the Western world. The toponym Kostroma is used in an ironic context: the memoirist quotes his poetic work, where he mentions his hometown which is not particularly different from other cities, since everyday bustle reigns in them all. Further, in the section «Russian Hinterland», Kostroma is named among other Russian cities, becoming a symbol of a more prosperous life and participates in creating the city-village opposition. The key hydronyms of the memories are the names of the Viga and Volga rivers. Their semantic interaction with the names of provincial settlements is actualized in the context. The evaluative vocabulary becomes the means of creating the writer's modality with positive textual connotations prevailing. In conclusion, the author of the article emphasizes the role of Kostroma toponyms in forming the chronotopic characteristics of the text and the communicative organization of the memoir discourse.

«The city is quiet, silvery, swaying in the cradle of vision» (epithet characteristics of the city in the Ukrainian poetic language of ХХ century)

The noun city is an actively epithetized image of Ukrainian poetry of the twentieth century. Around it are definitions with direct, descriptive meaning (autological) and with figurative, figurative-evaluative (metalogical). Autologous definitions include characteristics of size (large, giant, small), age (new, old, ancient, ancient, ancient, eternal, young), location relative to the administrative center (central, provincial), distance from the location of the lyrical hero. close), time (morning, evening, night). Also traditional for the Ukrainian poetic language is the use of the nomination city and specific names of cities with epithets beautiful, abandoned, unfamiliar, with possessive pronouns my, our. In many epithets to the image of the city material-subject plan is inferior to the emotional-expressive, metaphorical, associative-figurative word usage prevails over the direct, nominative. The semantic structure of such constructions is dominated by seven ‘visual perception’, ‘audio perception’, ‘psychological perception’, ‘historical assessment’. Among the artistic definitions with the sema ‘visual perception’ the most branched color-epithet series – white, yellow, green, blue, gray, gray, black, gold. Carriers with a color sign (golden-topped, silver-haired, white-winged) are carriers of complicated semantics and value. The aesthetics of definitions with the dominant family ‘psychological perception’ (suffering, torn, exhausted, tired, tragic, etc.) is determined by their imagery and emotional coloring. Anthropomorphic epithets transfer to the image of the city signs of psycho-emotional states (fatigue, suffering), character traits (pride, tenderness, kindness, insecurity), morality or immorality (innocence, sinfulness), as well as external portrait traits or signs of human physical condition. Characteristic epithet microparadigms develop realities that structure the city space, specify its social and cultural infrastructure. In general, epithetization reflects both realistic and figurative-symbolic, philosophical-generalized meaning of the image of the city. It is both a geographical object and an aestheticized artistic space in which lyrical heroes self-identify. Such a complex nature of the image opens up prospects for its broad interpretation.

Of Modern Ruptures: Verovšek's Appeal to a Collective EU Memory

Of Modern Ruptures:Verovšek's Appeal to a Collective EU Memory Richard A. Vogt (bio) Peter J Verovšek. Memory and the Future of Europe: Rupture and Integration in the Wake of Total War. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2020. 240 pp. £80.00 (hc). ISBN: 9781526143105. What began as a reflection upon the role of collective memory in the foundation of the EU project, soon became for Peter J. Verovšek a decade-long exercise in confronting the metacrisis that has been tearing at the Union's solidarity.1 The enlargement of 2004, the failed Constitutional vote of 2005, and the Great Recession all preceded his first written word in 2009. The Eurozone financial crisis continued. And then came the migration crisis, Brexit and a deepening nationalist, far-right movement which made electoral gains in the 2019 European Parliament. In June 2020 (after the book was released) when adding the current crisis of COVID-19 to this list, he reflected that now is not the time for significant EU reform. Better to muddle through, he reasoned, and consider wholesale change at a later date.2 But isn't that the problem that the EU project has had for most of this century: being captive to crisis after crisis? Does this not alert us to the fact that it is a political body fundamentally ill-designed to tackle widespread challenges across its dysmorphic geopolitical body? French right-wing nationalist Marine LePen made this clear at the start of 2019, declaring that she was no longer pushing for a form of Frexit, as she had been doing for years. "I summarize it this way: the European Union is dead," she campaigned. "Long live Europe."3 The discourse around the EU is now one of a metacrisis, and even (by extension) a crisis of liberalism and capitalism, abetted by mainstream media and politicians alike.4 Is this largely because the EU, through incessant territorial expansion and diminishing powers of coercion, has conceded its "mystical foundation of authority" to assume one of a purely economic and legal identity?5 If the compounding treaties of the EU have been seen as the way to anchor the EU's uniquely twentieth-century identity—one that is slowly devolving—then it appears the belief is that the Union a can leap from one that is essentially a legal and economic construct into one that will be a supra-national being. Schengen has become a hallowed doctrine, irrespective of its actual application. Yet, cultures and nations are molded from their myths as much as their history: this is especially true of national grievances and collective memories.6 What the EU project arguably lacks in this regard are more heroic foundational legends that can take precedence over any bureaucratic inconsistencies of origin.7 Yes, there is the appeal to the symbolism of Auschwitz, but at best the EU evokes a roll call of city names that are seen to sign-point its evolution into the present-day Union: Westphalia, Vienna, Versailles, Potsdam, Maastricht and Schengen.8 At worst, the EU is born out of the memories of genocide and total war. To counter this, Verovšek looks toward the great European rupture of 1945, relying on rephrasing the "traumatic events that tear existing narratives of the past asunder," and in doing so allowing "collective memory to act as a resource for social and political change" (12).9 [End Page 421] This short (but seemingly long) history of minor ruptures of the EU this century mentioned at the outset—from mass enlargement to the 2019 Parliamentary election in which 10% of the representatives were considered to be far right politicians—further crowd out a once-coherent European narrative. This has prompted Verovšek to reflect on the broader EU legacy. As the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) was founded in 1951 upon the experiences of total war to create a more peaceful, inclusive future, does the current crisis of European identity ("potentially existential," he adds) rest upon the fading of this once-shared memory? And if so, what are the agitators of a changing EU identity? If Duncan Bell is right, and I suspect he is, then memory...

On andijan polysynonym and its variants

The article analyzes the historical, dialectal variants of the ancient city name -Andijanpolysonymy and is scientifically based. In the work "History of Andijan city" by Ishakhon Junaydullohojaoglu Ibrat: "Andijan is originally Odinajon. Odinajon was the daughter of Afrosiab, who had given him an orda and a garden, and had given him a name. The toponymic system of the Uzbek language has reached its current level on the basis of step-by-step obsolescence, bleaching and renewal with the perfection, development and progress of our people and its language.

Oleksandr Tverdokhliebov – historian, ethnographer, literator

The article highlights the life and scientific achievements of Olexandr Tverdokhliebov (historian, ethnographer, writer, teacher, member of the Kharkiv Historical and Philological Society, archivist of the Kharkiv Historical and Philological Society, member of the project of the Ministry of Finance of the Russian Empire, dedicated to various studies activist, member of the Okhtyrka Enlightenment (1917–1918), whose scientific work on the history of Slobidska and Left-Bank Ukraine still remains on time and which significance of works for historical and regional scientific research on the history of Slobidska Ukraine. The manuscripts of the researcher, which are stored in the funds of the Okhtyrka Museum of Local Lore, archival institutions, confirming the exceptional importance of works for historical and regional scientific research on the history of Slobidska Ukraine, which are published and currently important nowadays. The historical essay “City of Akhtyrka” describes all aspects of life of the inhabitants of the provincial Slobozhansk city in Kharkiv province in the XIX century, where the author delineates the historical and geographical features of the city, its physical and geographical characteristics, settlement history and version of the origin of the city name. The industrial development of the city of Okhtyrka is illuminated in the work “The fate of the tobacco factory, established under Peter I in Akhtyrka”, where the historian described the socioeconomic and production conditions of tobacco growing and tobacco production. In the research and description of Orthodox parishes, churches and monasteries of Okhtyrka district of Kharkiv province, which are described in the work “On the history of Skelsky monastery”. The author showed the formation of the monastery economy, in particular, its land tenure, which was an extremely important issue for the monastery, which was associated with the names of famous in the Left Bank of Ukraine family Shimonovsky, Hetmans I. Mazepa and I. Skoropadsky. The creative work of the historian includes explorations dedicated to Kotelevshchina, where the author provided information about the geographical location, socio-economic development of the region; archaeological monuments, features and descriptions of Kotelva buildings. Tverdokhlebov’s ethnographic studies for the purpose of collecting folklore material became the basis of scientific ideas, methods of collecting ethnographic materials. The researcher managed to record many songs, thoughts of blind people, lyre players, bandura players of Okhtyrka district, whi ch were written from lyrici sts Glushchenko and Gordienko. Ethnographic explorations became the basis for writing the works “Old World Carnival”, “Popivna”, “From the Past and Present Povorsklania” and others. O. Tverdokhlebov as a participant in the project of the Ministry of Finance of the Russian Empire, which was devoted to the study of handicraf ts i n different regions, studied pottery, leather, blacksmithing, sailing of several districts of Kharkiv province, the results of which were published in the third issue “Proceedings of the Commission for the Study of Handicrafts of the Kharkiv Province of Akhtyrsky District” 1885, where handicraft tools and means, living and working premises of craftsmen of Boromlya, Okhtyrka, Kuzemin, Kotelva and other settlements were illuminated and demographic characteristics of artisans (marital status, surnames, etc.) were described, also economic side of crafts and many other important issues that contribute to an objective assessment of the then state of folk crafts in Slobozhanshchina were outlined. The researcher focuses on the economy, culture, life, handicrafts, education, spiritual heritage of Slobozhanshchina.

Recognition of Offline Handwritten Arabic Words Using a Few Structural Features

Handwriting recognition is one of the most significant problems in pattern recognition, many studies have been proposed to improve this recognition of handwritten text for different languages. Yet, Fewer studies have been done for the Arabic language and the processing of its texts remains a particularly distinctive problem due to the variability of writing styles and the nature of Arabic scripts compared to other scripts. The present paper suggests a feature extraction technique for offline Arabic handwriting recognition. A handwriting recognition system for Arabic words using a few important structural features and based on a Radial Basis Function (RBF) neural networks is proposed. The methods of feature extraction are central to achieve high recognition performance. The proposed methodology relies on a feature extraction technique based on many structural characteristics extracted from the word skeleton (subwords, diacritics, loops, ascenders, and descenders). In order to reach our purpose, we built our own word database and the proposed system has been successfully tested on a handwriting database of Algerian city names (wilayas). Finally, a simple classifier based on the radial basis function neural network is presented to recognize certain words to verify the reliability of the proposed feature extraction. The experiments on some images of the benchmark IFN/ENIT database show that the proposed system improves recognition and the results obtained are indicative of the efficiency of our technique.

Recognition System for Libyan Entity Names

Named Entity Recognition (NER) is a computational linguistic concept that is used to find and classify appropriate nouns in a text such as person names, geographical locations, and organizations. Such a concept is fundamental in the field of natural language processing. In Libya, many private and public institutions suffer from using the proper translation of entity names from Arabic language into English. Therefore, in this paper, we are concerned with analyzing Arabic articles to extract and recognize entity names. A recognition system is developed for recognizing names of persons, academic institutions, and cities in Libya. At first, a training corpus and dictionaries are built for the intended entity names in this research. Then, the aspects of the entity names are studied, and their patterns and rules are designed. Then, the implementation is performed using Nooj linguistic language. The recognition of person names and Libyan cities and academic institutions was carried out. Statistics showed the frequencies of the appearance rate of person names, academic institutions, and cities in our training corpus. The obtained results are promised and met the research goals for tackling the problem of Arabic named entity recognition.

Klein, L. (2019). <i>The Iliad: An epic and history</i>. St. Petersburg: Eurasia. (In Russ.)

The Iliad: An Epic and History [‘Iliada’: epos i istoriya] is the last book by L. Klein, a prominent Russian historian, archaeologist, philologist, and the founder of theoretical archaeology. The book was originally conceived as the third part of a larger research project, The Iliad Deciphered [Rasshifrovannaya ‘Iliada’]. The Iliad: An Epic and History includes important additions to The Iliad’s Anatomy [Anatomiya ‘Iliady’], with references to its tables and maps, as well as to Disembodied Heroes [Besplotnye geroi]. Klein analyzes how frequently epithets were used with city names and names of the heroes, as well as morphemes of frequently used and key words in terms of their age and geography. Based on the results of this analysis, he divides the Iliad into parts and proceeds to describe them in detail. Klein also elaborates on the images of the heroes and their origins in local cults. A large part of the work is devoted to analysis of the Catalogue of Ships. Thanks to the findings provided by the book the readers get a comprehensive view of the overall textual structure of the Iliad.

Truth-in-Advertising Laws: Are They Working? A Cross-Sectional Analysis of a "Plastic Surgeon" Patient Search Simulation.

Non-board-certified plastic surgeons performing cosmetic procedures and advertising as plastic surgeons may have an adverse effect on a patient's understanding of their practitioner's medical training and patient safety. The authors aim to assess (1) the impact of city size and locations and (2) the impact of health care transparency acts on the ratio of board-certified and non-American Board of Plastic Surgeons physicians. The authors performed a systematic Google search for the term "plastic surgeon [city name]" to simulate a patient search of online providers. Comparisons of board certification status between the top hits for each city were made. Data gathered included city population, regional location, practice setting, and states with the passage of truth-in-advertising laws. One thousand six hundred seventy-seven unique practitioners were extracted. Of these, 1289 practitioners (76.9 percent) were American Board of Plastic Surgery-certified plastic surgeons. When comparing states with truth-in-advertising laws and states without such laws, the authors found no significant differences in board-certification rates among "plastic surgery" practitioners (88.9 percent versus 92.0 percent; p = 0.170). There was a significant difference between board-certified "plastic surgeons" versus out-of-scope practitioners on Google search between large, medium, and small cities (100 percent versus 92.9 percent versus 86.5; p < 0.001). Non-board-certified providers tend to localize to smaller cities. Truth-in-advertising laws have not yet had an impact on the way a number of non-American Board of Plastic Surgery-certified practitioners market themselves. There may be room to expand the scope of truth-in-advertising laws to the online world and to smaller cities.

HOW RELIGION MATTERS: ISLAMOPHOBIA, TERRORISM AND TWITTER

Twitter, as one of the most used social media tools, helps construction of virtual communities and provides members with opportunity to reflect opinions, thoughts, emotions etc. With respect to the said feature of it, an analysis of public reaction over Twitter was conducted regarding four terrorist attacks in Beirut, Paris of November 2015 and Babil, Brussels of March 2016. The analysis was based on public hashtags created with city name plus the word ‘attack(s)’ - #ParisAttacks, #BeirutAttacks, #BrusselsAttacks, and #BabilAttack; and 9998 tweets posted following four days from the day of the attack were examined. For the purpose of the set examination, qualitative content analysis method was used and posted tweets were categorized with respect to their general meanings. In order to back up this research, it is also essential to introduce the terms terrorism, perpetrator of the aforementioned attacks, the ISIS, and the concepts of worthy and unworthy victims.

SACRED FEATURES OF THE DEFENSIVE ARCHITECTURE OF BOHEMIA OF THE LATE MIDDLE AGES

The proposed work on the basis of the philosophical-architectural approach explores the development of 15th century fortification systems in the Czech and Moravian lands under the influence of the anti-clerical national liberation struggle of the Houthis during the reform Movement of Jan Gus, who had a direct influence on the mental values of society in this locus of late-medieval Europe. The relevance of the work is due to the fact that in modern national science this phenomenon of culture - the features of fortifications and names of castles and cities of the late Middle Ages was not considered. The goal is to identify the general and special in the formation of defense architecture in the Czech Republic in the 15th century, national liberation movement in the Czech and Moravian lands.

City-size bias in knowledge on the effects of urban nature on people and biodiversity

The evidence base for the benefits of urban nature for people and biodiversity is strong. However, cities are diverse and the social and environmental contexts of cities are likely to influence the observed effects of urban nature, and the application of evidence to differing contexts. To explore biases in the evidence base for the effects of urban nature, we text-matched city names in the abstracts and affiliations of 14 786 journal articles, from separate searches for articles on urban biodiversity, the health and wellbeing impacts of urban nature, and on urban ecosystem services. City names were found in 51% of article abstracts and 92% of affiliations. Most large cities were studied many times over, while only a small proportion of small cities were studied once or twice. Almost half the cities studied also had an author with an affiliation from that city. Most studies were from large developed cities, with relatively few studies from Africa and South America in particular. These biases mean the evidence base for the effects of urban nature on people and on biodiversity does not adequately represent the lived experience of the 41% of the world’s urban population who live in small cities, nor the residents of the many rapidly urbanising areas of the developing world. Care should be taken when extrapolating research findings from large global cities to smaller cities and cities in the developing world. Future research should encourage research design focussed on answering research questions rather than city selection by convenience, disentangle the role of city size from measures of urban intensity (such as population density or impervious surface cover), avoid gross urban-rural dualisms, and better contextualise existing research across social and environmental contexts.

Квантитативна та структурна характеристика ойконімікону північної Хмельниччини

In the Northern Khmelnytskyi region, we recorded 1,258 names of settlements, including 872 main oikonyms and 386 their variants. Among the nominations of the settlements we single out both the actual oikonyms – names of cities, towns, villages and microoikonyms – names of settlements, manors, farms and other similar small denotations. In the oikonym system, we distinguish between modern nominations and former ones, the number of which, as we can see, is almost the same, due to which the coefficient of dynamics of oikonymicon is 2,003, which means that on average settlement has two proper names. This is one of the highest rate due to the long (sometimes up to a thousand years) period of denotation and the presence of many extralingual factors that influenced the nomination of settlements. Traditionally, in modern onomastics, researchers divide onyms, according to their structure, into simple (monobasic), complex (two- and multi-basic) and compound (phrases and sentences) constructions. The largest number of analyzed oikonyms are simple names, represented by nouns. Thus, the proper names of settlements and their parts are quantitatively the largest groups of names of geographical objects of the Northern Khmelnytsky region. Quantitative differences can be traced territorially, as in Izyaslav district we recorded 1,459 (34.22%) such nominations, Polonskyi – 631 (14.8%), Slavutskyi – 998 (23.4%), and Shepetivskyi – 1176 (27, 58%); a total of 4,264 onyms. The coefficient of dynamics of such names is the highest among the proper names of cities, towns and villages, and the lowest – among the nominations of corners and neighborhoods. A characteristic structural feature of proper names of settlements and their parts is the dominance of simple forms over compound and especially complex ones.