Chinese Variant Research Articles

Continuance and innovation: A study of Chinese character variants in late modern Vietnam’s village customs texts

This article explores the reception and creation of Chinese character variants in Vietnam within a small scale of eight hand-written village customs texts in Bắc Ninh province dating from 1889 to 1915. The article focuses on the four following main issues: (a) the continuance and innovation rate of variants in Vietnam; (b) the method of innovation of variant characters; (c) the behavior of the writers regarding variant characters; (d) supplementing 71 unrecorded variants to dictionaries of variant characters and previous studies.

Novel Chinese pseudorabies virus variants undergo extensive recombination and rapid interspecies transmission

We have some comments related to the recently published paper in Transboundary and Emerging Diseases titled "Genetic evolution analysis of novel recombinant pseudorabies virus strain in Sichuan, China" (Huang et al., 2020). A Chinese pseudorabies virus (PRV) isolate named FJ62 was reported to be a natural recombination of PRV genotype 1 from wild boar and genotype 2 from domestic pigs. Specifically, the gB gene of PRV FJ62 shared the highest homology (100%) with Japanese MY-1 strain from wild boar, which shared the same nucleotide sequences with European and American PRV strains. By contrast, gC, gD and gE genes of PRV FJ62 were closely related to Chinese PRV variants in domestic pigs that were far removed from the reference strains in Europe and USA.

Chinese character variants in Vietnam:A case study of characters inThe Complete Secrets for Buddhist Monks in Practice of Precious Rites

Based on the approaches of graphology and positivism, the paper enumerates and analyses the Chinese character variants in the book titled The Complete Secrets for Buddhist Monks in Practice of Precious Rites 釋氏寶鼎行持秘旨全章, compiled by Zen Master Huyền Quang (1254–1334). Thus, the paper focuses on analysing 56 Chinese character variants found in the book and comes to the conclusion that the number of Chinese character variants created in Vietnam is double the number of those imported from China.

Genetic recombination in fast-spreading coxsackievirus A6 variants: a potential role in evolution and pathogenicity.

Hand, foot, and mouth disease (HFMD) is a common global epidemic. From 2008 onwards, many HFMD outbreaks caused by coxsackievirus A6 (CV-A6) have been reported worldwide. Since 2013, with a dramatically increasing number of CV-A6-related HFMD cases, CV-A6 has become the predominant HFMD pathogen in mainland China. Phylogenetic analysis based on the VP1 capsid gene revealed that subtype D3 dominated the CV-A6 outbreaks. Here, we performed a large-scale (near) full-length genetic analysis of global and Chinese CV-A6 variants, including 158 newly sequenced samples collected extensively in mainland China between 2010 and 2018. During the global transmission of subtype D3 of CV-A6, the noncapsid gene continued recombining, giving rise to a series of viable recombinant hybrids designated evolutionary lineages, and each lineage displayed internal consistency in both genetic and epidemiological features. The emergence of lineage –A since 2005 has triggered CV-A6 outbreaks worldwide, with a rate of evolution estimated at 4.17 × 10−3 substitutions site-1 year−1 based on a large number of monophyletic open reading frame sequences, and created a series of lineages chronologically through varied noncapsid recombination events. In mainland China, lineage –A has generated another two novel widespread lineages (–J and –L) through recombination within the enterovirus A gene pool, with robust estimates of occurrence time. Lineage –A, –J, and –L infections presented dissimilar clinical manifestations, indicating that the conservation of the CV-A6 capsid gene resulted in high transmissibility, but the lineage-specific noncapsid gene might influence pathogenicity. Potentially important amino acid substitutions were further predicted among CV-A6 variants. The evolutionary phenomenon of noncapsid polymorphism within the same subtype observed in CV-A6 was uncommon in other leading HFMD pathogens; such frequent recombination happened in fast-spreading CV-A6, indicating that the recovery of deleterious genomes may still be ongoing within CV-A6 quasispecies. CV-A6-related HFMD outbreaks have caused a significant public health burden and pose a great threat to children’s health; therefore, further surveillance is greatly needed to understand the full genetic diversity of CV-A6 in mainland China.

Morphological and molecular characterization of Orbilia pseudopolybrocha and O. tonghaiensis, two new species of Orbiliaceae from China.

This study examined over 20 fungal specimens of the Orbiliaceae (Orbiliomycetes) from different regions in China. Our analyses based on morphological traits and the ITS rDNA sequences revealed two new Orbilia species with drechslerella-like asexual morphs. These new species are able to trap nematodes with constricting rings. In addition, Orbilia cf. orientalis is reported as a new cryptic Chinese variant of European collections of O. orientalis. All three species are described and illustrated in detail in this paper. Their phylogenetic relationships with other orbiliaceous species were identified based on their ITS sequences.

The Polluter Pays Principle as an Instrument of Municipal and Global Environmental Governance in Climate Change Mitigation Law: Lessons from China, India, and the United States

The disparate fates of the polluter pays principle (ppp) as an instrument of municipal environmental governance in the environmental law of China, India, and the United States illustrate how institutions and culture can shape its use. In China, essential elements of the Chinese legal tradition and an institutionalized devolution of power from the central government to local governments essentially neutralized the Chinese variant of the ppp in one important context by mobilizing certain culturally defined behavioural norms at the local level. In India, the Supreme Court has behaved in accordance with the socially revolutionary role intended for it by the framers of India’s Constitution by recognizing a maximalist conception of the ppp as part of Indian law, although other features of India’s unique legal culture and institutions have reduced the impact of this development. In the United States, the institutionalized fragmentation of the law-making process within the Federal Government has undermined even the implicit implementation of the ppp, to which US environmental statutes do not refer. The implications of these developments for the ppp as an instrument of municipal but also global environmental governance in climate change mitigation law flow less from the nominal status of the ppp in the laws of China, India, and the United States than from the unique institutional and cultural conditions that prevail there. The result is a case study in how institutions and culture can transform the implementation of a principle of environmental governance that at first glance might seem to be a simple exercise in economic rationality into a different exercise that is not simple at all.

Fine mapping of the MHC region identifies major independent variants associated with Han Chinese primary biliary cholangitis

The genetic association of primary biliary cholangitis with major histocompatibility complex (MHC) has been widely confirmed among different ethnicities. To map specific MHC region variants associated with PBC in a Han Chinese cohort, we imputed HLA antigens and amino acids (AA) in 1126 PBC cases and 1770 healthy control subjects using a Han-MHC reference database. We demonstrate that HLA-DRB1 and/or HLA-DQB1 contributed the strongest signals, and that HLA-DPB1 was a separate independent locus. Regression analyses with classical HLA alleles indicate that HLA-DQB1*03:01 or HLA-DQβ1-Pro55, HLA-DPB1*17:01 or HLA-DPβ1-Asp84 and HLA-DRB1*08:03 could largely explain MHC association with PBC. Forward stepwise regression analyses with HLA amino acid variants localize the major signals to HLA-DRβ1-Ala74, HLA-DQβ1-Pro55 and HLA-DPβ1-Asp84. Electrostatic potential calculations implicated AA variations at HLA-DQβ1 position 55 and HLA-DPβ1 position 84 as critical to peptide binding properties. Furthermore, although several critical Han Chinese AA variants differed from those shown in European populations, the predicted effects on antigen binding are likely to be very similar or identical and underlie the major component of MHC association with PBC.

Comprehensive genetic testing of Chinese SNHL patients and variants interpretation using ACMG guidelines and ethnically matched normal controls

Hereditary hearing loss is a monogenic disease with high genetic heterogeneity. Variants in more than 100 deafness genes underlie the basis of its pathogenesis. The aim of this study was to assess the ratio of SNVs in known deafness genes contributing to the etiology of both sporadic and familial sensorineural hearing loss patients from China. DNA samples from 1127 individuals, including normal hearing controls (n = 616), sporadic SNHL patients (n = 433), and deaf individuals (n = 78) from 30 hearing loss pedigrees were collected. The NGS tests included analysis of sequence alterations in 129 genes. The variants were interpreted according to the ACMG/AMP guidelines for genetic hearing loss combined with NGS data from 616 ethnically matched normal hearing adult controls. We identified a positive molecular diagnosis in 226 patients with sporadic SNHL (52.19%) and in patients from 17 deafness pedigrees (56.67%). Ethnically matched MAF filtering reduced the variants of unknown significance by 8.7%, from 6216 to 5675. Some complexities that may restrict causative variant identification are discussed. This report highlight the clinical utility of NGS panels identifying disease-causing variants for the diagnosis of hearing loss and underlines the importance of a broad data of control and ACMG/AMP standards for accurate clinical delineation of VUS variants.

A sketch of Chinese character variants in Vietnam: With a focus on the variants of ‘Buddha’

In Vietnam, based on documents researched by the author, Chinese character variants appeared and were used in writing from the 12th century at the latest, during the independent and self-reliant pe...

Application of RNAscope technology to studying the infection dynamics of a Chinese porcine epidemic diarrhea virus variant strain BJ2011C in neonatal piglets

The highly virulent porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV) variants cause the death of mainly neonatal piglets, but how the viruses spread within the gastro-intestinal tract in a temporal and spatial manner has remained poorly characterized but is critical to understand the viral pathogenesis. In this study, we used the Chinese PEDV epidemic strain BJ2011C as a model organism and took advantage of the newly developed RNAscope in situ hybridization technology to investigate the tempo-spatial infection dynamics in neonatal piglets. We found that the PEDV strain BJ2011C could quickly colonize the small intestine, which occurred in just 6 h post infection, with virus shedding starting at 6 hpi and peaking at 24 hpi. Jejunum was the first target tissue for infection and then ileum, followed by infrequent infection of duodenum. In these tissues, the virus nucleic acids were mainly present in the villous epithelial cells but not in crypt cells. Interestingly, the viral RNAs were not detectable by RNAscope in large intestines although tissue damages could be discerned by H & E staining. Overall, our results provide useful information about spread dynamics and tissue preference of PEDV epidemic strain BJ2011C.

Isolation and molecular characterization of a variant of Chinese gC-genotype II pseudorabies virus from a hunting dog infected by biting a wild boar in Japan and its pathogenicity in a mouse model.

We isolated a variant of Chinese pseudorabies virus from a hunting dog with symptoms similar to Aujeszky's disease and designated the isolate MY-1 strain. The dog developed symptoms 6days after hunting and biting a wild boar and died the day after onset. The Bam HI restriction profile of MY-1 DNA was different from those of the Japanese reference strain Yamagata-S81 and two vaccine strains, Bartha and Begonia, and resembled Bam HI-RFLP (restriction fragment length polymorphism) type IV. Complete nucleotide sequences were determined, and phylogenetic analyses revealed that MY-1 belonged to the same cluster of old Chinese strains and variant strains isolated recently in China, but most of the open reading frames of MY-1 were located on a different branch from those of these Chinese strains. Based on a gC phylogenetic analysis, MY-1 belonged to gC-genotype II composed of those Chinese strains. In mice, the 50% lethal dose (LD50) of MY-1 (103.0 TCID50) was almost the same as those of Yamagata-S81 and Bartha. The LD50 value of Begonia was 10≥4.5 TCID50. The mean survival periods of mice after infection with 104 TCID50 of MY-1, Yamagata-S81 and Bartha were 3.9days, 2.3days, and 8.0days, respectively. The results suggested that the variant of Chinese PRV with slightly weaker pathogenicity than that of wild virulent viruses might be maintained in wild boars in Japan. Furthermore, we would like to propose that old Chinese strains, recent Chinese variant strains, and MY-1 should be grouped as an Asian type PRV.

Evaluating the epizootic risk to poultry of a novel Chinese H7N9 virus variant with increased pathogenicity in turkeys

Previously we successful infected turkeys with the China-origin H7N9 low pathogenicity avian influenza virus (LPAIV, A/Anhui/1/13, referred to as ‘wild-type’ (Wt)) which successfully transmitted to contact turkeys with virulent outcomes, highly unusual for LPAIV infection, particularly as the LPAIV cleavage site remained unchanged in all experiments. Sequencing of progeny viruses revealed consistent emergence of the L226Q polymorphism in the HA gene, termed the ‘turkey-adapted’ (ty-ad) virus. Ty-ad and Wt were used to compare the epizootic risk posed by both H7N9 LPAIVs in turkeys and to explore the mechanisms which underpins any differences. The Wt and ty-ad viruses robustly infected inoculated and contact turkeys, producing similar shedding titres. However, the ty-ad virus was more pathogenic than the Wt virus in directly-infected and contact turkeys, causing 100 % (Wt) compared to 16 % (ty-ad) survival. The ty-ad virus was detected in broader range of turkey organs, and at higher titre, compared to the Wt variant. This contrasted with pathogenicity and tissue-tropism observations for both viruses in chickens. The wt and ty-ad viruses did not replicate without trypsin in vitro, affirming a typical LPAIV phenotype. The L226Q polymorphism is known to alter receptor binding, with key differences in receptor distribution between turkey and chicken tissues observed. Replication kinetics differences in a range of avian cells will be reported for both viruses. Consequently, if this ty-ad variant were to arise more frequently in nature, it would pose an increased virulent risk to turkeys. It is therefore important to maintain surveillance and understanding of China-origin H7N9 viruses.

RNA-seq of HaHV-1-infected abalones reveals a common transcriptional signature of Malacoherpesviruses

Haliotid herpesvirus-1 (HaHV-1) is the viral agent causative of abalone viral ganglioneuritis, a disease that has severely affected gastropod aquaculture. Although limited, the sequence similarity between HaHV-1 and Ostreid herpesvirus-1 supported the assignment of both viruses to Malacoherpesviridae, a Herpesvirales family distantly related with other viruses. In this study, we reported the first transcriptional data of HaHV-1, obtained from an experimental infection of Haliotis diversicolor supertexta. We also sequenced the genome draft of the Chinese HaHV-1 variant isolated in 2003 (HaHV-1-CN2003) by PacBio technology. Analysis of 13 million reads obtained from 3 RNA samples at 60 hours post injection (hpi) allowed the prediction of 51 new ORFs for a total of 117 viral genes and the identification of 207 variations from the reference genome, consisting in 135 Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms (SNPs) and 72 Insertions or Deletions (InDels). The pairing of genomic and transcriptomic data supported the identification of 60 additional SNPs, representing viral transcriptional variability and preferentially grouped in hotspots. The expression analysis of HaHV-1 ORFs revealed one putative secreted protein, two putative capsid proteins and a possible viral capsid protease as the most expressed genes and demonstrated highly synchronized viral expression patterns of the 3 infected animals at 60 hpi. Quantitative reverse transcription data of 37 viral genes supported the burst of viral transcription at 30 and 60 hpi during the 72 hours of the infection experiment, and allowed the distinction between early and late viral genes.

Novel variant strains of infectious bursal disease virus isolated in China

Infectious bursal disease (IBD) is one of the most important immunosuppressive diseases that seriously threaten poultry farming and food safety worldwide. The variant strain of infectious bursal disease virus (IBDV) has been greatly neglected for more than 30 years. Recently, the subclinical infection of suspected IBD, causing considerable economic losses, occurred in the main chicken-farming regions of China. Through RT-PCR, sequencing, and phylogenic analyses, novel variant IBDVs were first identified in six provinces of eastern China. Immunological detection further confirmed the antigenic variation of the Chinese variant IBDVs. The Chinese IBDV variants were obviously different from the American IBDV variants, with less than a 97.7% (VP1) or 98.7% (VP2) amino acid sequence identity. Animal experiments further confirmed the serious threat of the variant IBDVs to chickens, demonstrating irreversible damage to the central immune organ, obvious immunosuppression, and growth retardation. This study not only identified the pandemic nature of the novel variant IBDVs for the first time but also discovered the distinct molecular epidemiological characteristics of these viruses, which will contribute more to the control of the disease.

A gD&gC-substituted pseudorabies virus vaccine strain provides complete clinical protection and is helpful to prevent virus shedding against challenge by a Chinese pseudorabies variant

BackgroundSince 2011, pseudorabies caused by a variant PRV has re-emerged in many Chinese Bartha-K61-vaccinated pig farms. An efficacious vaccine is necessary to control this disease. We described the construction of a gD&gC-substituted pseudorabies virus (PRV B-gD&gCS) from the Bartha-K61 (as backbone) and AH02LA strain (as template for gD and gC genes) through bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC) technology using homologous recombination. The growth kinetics of PRV B-gD&gCS was compared with Bartha-K61. Its safety was evaluated in 28-day-old piglets. Protection efficacy was tested in piglets by lethal challenge with AH02LA at 7 days post vaccination, including body temperature, clinical symptoms, virus shedding, mortality rate, and lung lesions.ResultsThe results showed that a BAC clone of Bartha-K61 and a B-gD&gCS clone were successfully generated. The growth kinetics of PRV B-gD&gCS strain on ST (Swine testicular) cells was similar to that of the Bartha-K61 strain. No piglets inoculated intramuscularly with PRV B-gD&gCS strain exhibited any clinical symptoms or virus shedding. After AH02LA challenge, all piglets in PRV B-gD&gCS and Bartha-K61 groups (n = 5 each) survived without exhibiting any clinical symptoms and high body temperature. More importantly, PRV B-gD&gCS strain completely prevented virus shedding in 2 piglets and reduced virus shedding post challenge in the other 3 piglets as compared with Bartha-K61 group.ConclusionsOur results suggest that PRV B-gD&gCS strain is a promising vaccine candidate for the effective control of current severe epidemic pseudorabies in China.

Лексика материальной культуры в памятнике «Правдивые записи о монголах Цинской империи»

The paper deals with the names of some items of material culture presented in the decree on attributes of an escort of the Manchurian governor Hung Taiji for the festive ceremony held in honor of granting him the title ‘Gracious Peaceful Bogdo-Khan’ in 1636. The decree is presented in the written monument “Truthful record about Mongols of the Qing Empire” published in Classic Mongolian in 2013 in Huhe-Hoto (People's Republic of China). It is revealed that naming of a number of objects under study was based on visual perception of their form and acoustical associations their action produced. So, names of such pieces of material culture as sarqalǰi ‘staff mace’, ǰida ‘spear’, etc. are connected with the image ‘something peaked’, baγbur ‘bowl’ with the image ‘something stocky’, longqu ‘bottle’ with the image ‘something big-bellied’, qubing ‘jug’ with the image ‘something narrow (about a neck)’, manǰilγa ‘fringe’ with the image ‘something long, trailing’. Etymologies of the words saγadaγ ‘quiver’ from a preverb *saγa [tata-] ‘to snatch out’, manǰilγa ‘fringe’, etc. are presented for the first time. The naming of tuγ ‘banner’ occurred on the basis of acoustical perception of its fluttering. The list contains loanwords from Chinese and Sanskrit. The analysis of the Chinese variants of lexemes showed that in certain cases their meaning is more precise, than that of Mongolian words. Consideration of compound words revealed a similar mechanism of naming process for some other pieces of material culture in Mongolian and Chinese of the 17th century. In the Chinese variant of the monument the word 撒带sā dài is a transliteration of the Mongolian word saγadaγ ‘quiver’. It demonstrates the importance of the Mongolian culture in the life of the Manchurian emperors’ Court. Mongolian, in turn, borrows some elements from Chinese which are used as an explanation to the main component of a compound word. So, the consideration of the etymology of the words designating elements of material culture showed some specificity of Mongolian in the way it reflects both real and mental worlds.

Evaluation of novel Parkinson's disease candidate genes in the Chinese population.

Recent whole-exome sequencing studies in European patients with Parkinson's disease (PD) have identified potential risk variants across 33 novel PD candidate genes. We aim to determine if these reported candidate genes are similarly implicated in Asians by assessing common, rare, and novel nonsynonymous coding variants by sequencing all 33 genes in 198 Chinese samples and genotyping coding variants in an independent set of 9756 Chinese samples. We carried out further targeted sequencing of CD36 in an additional 576 Chinese and Korean samples. We found that only 8 of 43 reported risk variants were polymorphic in our Chinese samples. We identified several heterozygotes for rare loss-of-function mutations, including the reported CD36 p.Gln74Ter variant, in both cases and controls. We also observed 2 potential compound heterozygotes among PD cases for rare loss-of-function mutations in CD36 and SSPO. The other reported variants were common in East Asians and not associated with PD, completely absent, or only found in controls. Therefore, the 33 reported candidate genes and associated variants are unlikely to confer significant PD risk in the East Asian population.

KIMÄK AND CHÙ-MÙ-KŪN 處木昆: NOTES ON AN IDENTIFI CATION

This study addresses the origin of a Turkic tribe Kimäk known from Muslim sources. In 800–1100 AD the Kimäk lived in Semirechye. In the article, they are associated with the Chù-mù-kūn 處木昆 tribe, which resided in the same place in 600–800 AD and was described by Chinese sources. The Kimäk genealogical legend related by the 11th century Persian writer Gardizi includes the story of the founder of the Kimäk tribe being immersed in water (the alleged reason why the Kimäk worshipped water). This story suggests that the reconstructed Chinese variant of the tribal name Chù-mù-kūn 處木昆 meant *čumuqun ~ *čomuqun *‘immersed in water’, *‘drowned (?)’. Based on the toponymy in the Chinese sources and the Old Turkic personal names relating to Altai and Semirechye, it is concluded that the words Chù-mù-kūn 處木昆 and Yemäk (Yán-mò 鹽莫) were used as early as mid-7th century, but they were parts of personal names unrelated to the Irtysh valley, where, according to Gardizi, the Kimäk tribal union originated. These facts not only document the ethnic diversity of the Kimäk tribal union, but suggest that at least the name of the dominant tribe derived from a personal name. Like Y.A. Zuyev, I am skeptical toward identifying the names Kimäk and Yemäk.

The pUL56 of pseudorabies virus variant induces downregulation of swine leukocyte antigen class I molecules through the lysosome pathway

Pseudorabies virus (PRV) is the causative agent of pseudorabies (PR) which causes large economic losses for Chinese swine industry since breaking out in late 2011. As a member of herpesviruses, PRV is able to escape the host immune elimination and establish latency, resulting in persistent infection. Here, we report that a currently prevalent Chinese PRV variant down-regulated swine leukocyte antigen class I (SLA-I) molecules on the surface of PK-15 cells and targeted them for degradation through lysosome pathway. Viral pUL56 protein, independent of other viral proteins, was associated with this function by inducing degradation of cellular SLA-I heavy chain (HC) in a manner that was dependent on the lysosome machinery. In addition, pUL56 interacted with SLA-I HC and increased its ubiquitination. Further studies demonstrated that the late domains (PPXY motifs) of pUL56 were required for the ubiquitination and degradation of SLA-I HC by pUL56. Together, our findings reveal the mechanisms by which PRV interferes with cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) responses and provide novel insights into the roles of PRV pUL56.

Moving between language frontiers: the challenges of the medium of instruction policy for Chinese as a second language

This article explores the extent to which the medium of instruction (MOI) policy in Hong Kong affect ethnic minority students’ Chinese language learning in school amidst postcolonial policy changes, and how the “flexible” MOI policy affects Chinese as a second language (CSL) frontline teaching in mainstream secondary schools with reference to the three orientations to language planning, namely language-as-problem, language-as-right, and language-as-resource (Ruiz 1984). It reports on a large-scale longitudinal study on the implementation of the “flexible” MOI policy, which is targeted to address the challenges that ethnic minority students and Chinese language teachers are faced with in CSL learning and teaching. Twenty-six CSL teachers and twenty students were target-sampled from fourteen schools involved in the same study. Based on an analysis of interview data through triangulation and critical discourse analysis, the authors argue that (1) difficulties in adapting to the new MOI for the Chinese Language subject would likely lead to low motivation levels and adversely affect CSL development among the students; (2) CSL teachers also experience difficulties in helping ethnic minority students to make successful transition for reasons including huge learning differences, limited time and resources, as well as marked linguistic differences between the two Chinese language variants. The authors recommend that policy reviews be carried out to enhance the quality of CSL teaching and learning in the midst of the current attempt at language standardization.