Chinese Girls Research Articles

Muslim Businessmen and Chinese Economics in Singkawang

Instead of being known as the “City of Tasbih”, nowadays Singkawang is either known as the “City of Amoy (Chinese girls)” or the “City of Thousand ChineseTemples”. Cap Go Meh annually International Festival is another evidence of Chinese image making towards the city. This indicates a sort of Chinese domination that must be studied, economically, politically, and socially. Furthermore, the research aims to explore the dynamics of Chinese Counterpart especially the Muslim Business elites' challenge such as ironic the ongoing dominating development. To explore the dynamics, in-depth interviews were held. Key figures among Muslim businessmen, Chinese elites, government officials, even laypeople were questioned in order to obtain a clear description and balanced analysis of possible biases and perspectives of the interviewees. Quantitative data are analyzed and discussed. In short, the research’s findings are: The desire of an Islamic Singkawang is still intact, driven mainly by Muslim businessmen, in order to defend the existence and of Muslim in face of their powerlessness amidst the domination of Chinese elites.Keywords: Muslim; businessmen, Chinese, economics, domination, Singkawang

Gender differences in attitude towards science: methodology for prioritising contributing factors

ABSTRACTUnderstanding secondary student attitudes towards science (SAS) is important if we are to increase the number and diversity of students who pursue STEM fields and address the gender imbalance in STEM careers. Existing studies that measured SAS tended to directly translate an ordinal scale (e.g., from ‘strongly agree’ to ‘strongly disagree’) into a set of linear scores (e.g. 5 for strongly agree and 1 for strongly disagree). We suggest that SAS constructs need to be calibrated on an interval scale in order to be meaningfully quantified. We propose the use of Rasch measurement where SAS constructs can be ranked according to their prevalence as SAS measurements. This paper implemented Rasch measurement to examine how Chinese boys and girls perceived different aspects of physics. A total of 495 boys and 490 girls from five secondary schools in Hong Kong participated in this study. An invariance analysis of SAS constructs important to boys and girls were found to have shown a similar hierarchy and that there are gender differences with respect to some but not all construct items. Main findings on how Asian boys and girls perceived physics, its implications and recommendations focusing on possible strategies to encourage girls to study physics are discussed.

The longitudinal and reciprocal relationships between selfie-related behaviors and self-objectification and appearance concerns among adolescents

A few cross-sectional studies have found that selfie-related behaviors have positive associations with self-objectification or appearance concerns, but little is known about whether bidirectional relationships exist between selfie behaviors and these body-related variables over time. The present study examined the reciprocal relationships between selfie-related behaviors and both self-objectification and appearance concerns among adolescents using a longitudinal design. Chinese adolescent boys and girls completed questionnaires at baseline and at 6-month follow-up. The key constructs included selfie-posting, selfie-editing, selfie-viewing, self-objectification, facial dissatisfaction, and body dissatisfaction. Results indicated that selfie-editing, but not selfie-posting, predicted increases in adolescents’ self-objectification and appearance concerns (both body and face) over time. Selfie-viewing predicted increases in self-objectification and facial dissatisfaction, but not body dissatisfaction over time. In the other direction, adolescents’ antecedent levels of self-objectification predicted increases in subsequent selfie-related behaviors. In addition, adolescents’ facial dissatisfaction positively predicted selfie-viewing and selfie-editing but not selfie-posting over time, whereas body dissatisfaction had no influence on subsequent selfie-related behaviors among adolescents. Findings from this study provide new insights into the reciprocal relationships between selfie-related behaviors and body image.

Differential analysis of nutrient intake, insulin resistance and lipid profiles between healthy and premature thelarche Chinese girls

BackgroundPremature thelarche (PT) is a benevolent ailment affecting young girls. Multiple factors are reported to correlate with this condition, but the mechanisms responsible for the onset of PT have not yet been fully investigated. This study aimed to evaluate the relationship of nutrient intake, insulin resistance and lipid profile with PT.MethodsTwo hundred sixty-three girls with PT, and 222 healthy girls of similar age were enrolled into this study. Their demographics, Tanner stage of breast development, nutrient intake, insulin resistance and lipid profiles were compared.ResultsDaily protein and fat intakes, insulin resistance parameters including serum insulin-like growth factor 1, fasting glucose to insulin ratio, quantitative insulin check index and homeostasis model of assessment of insulin resistance, as well as serum levels of triacylglycerol, total cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein, were all significantly altered in PT patients. Daily intake of energy and carbohydrate, and serum level of high-density lipoprotein protein were statistically indistinguishable between PT patients and healthy controls.ConclusionChinese girls with PT are potentially insulin resistant, which warrants more clinical attention and further investigation to address the underlying etiology.

Long-Term Outcomes of Treatments for Central Precocious Puberty or Early and Fast Puberty in Chinese Girls.

Gonadotropin-releasing hormone analogues (GnRHa) and recombinant human growth hormone (rhGH) have been widely used to treat idiopathic central precocious puberty (CPP) or early and fast puberty (EFP). However, large-scale studies to evaluate the treatment effects on final adult height (FAH) are still lacking. To assess the effects of long-term treatment for CPP/EFP on FAH and its main influencing factors. Retrospective, multicenter observational study from 1998 to 2017. Four hundred forty-eight Chinese girls with CPP/EFP received GnRHa and rhGH treatment (n = 118), GnRHa alone (n = 276), or no treatment (n = 54). FAH, target height (Tht), and predictive adult height (PAH). The height gain (FAH-PAH) was significantly different among the GnRHa and rhGH treatment, GnRHa alone, and no treatment groups (P < 0.05; 9.51 ± 0.53, 8.07 ± 0.37, and 6.44 ± 0.91 cm, respectively). The genetic height gain (FAH-Tht) was 4.0 ± 0.5 cm for the GnRHa + rhGH group and 2.0 ± 0.27 cm for the GnRHa group, while the control group reached their Tht. In addition, 5 critical parameters derived from PAH, bone age, and Tht, showed excellent performance in predicting which patients could gain ≥5 cm (FAH-PAH), and this was further validated using an independent study. The overall beneficial effect of GnRHa + rhGH or GnRHa on FAH was significant. The control group also reached their genetic target height. Clinicians are recommended to consider both the potential gains in height and the cost of medication.

Remarkable cognitive catch-up in Chinese Adoptees nine years after adoption

We investigated (1) whether 10-year-old internationally adopted Chinese girls who, on average, showed below-average intellectual functioning two and six months after adoption (Times 1–2, N = 92), showed catch-up in intellectual functioning, school achievement, and executive functioning nine years later (Time 3, N = 87). We tested (2) effects of type of pre-adoption care (institutional versus foster care), and effects of parental sensitivity (factor score for supportive presence and for intrusiveness compiling all three time points), and we examined (3) whether the latter buffered the effects of type of care. The children showed significant recovery and complete catch-up in intellectual functioning at Time 3, and did not lag behind at school compared to non-adopted children. Contrary to the results of Times 1 and 2, type of care was not associated with cognitive development at Time 3. Parental sensitivity did not buffer the link between type of care and cognitive development.

Prevalence of CYP17A1 gene mutations in 17\u03b1-hydroxylase deficiency in the Chinese Han population

Background17α-hydroxylase deficiency is a rare autosomal recessive disorder caused by mutations in the cytochrome P450 family 17 subfamily A member 1 gene. The major clinical presentation includes hypertension, hypokalemia, male pseudohermaphroditism and female gonadal dysplasia. Hundreds of pathogenic variants have been reported in this disorder, and some common mutations were found to be race-specific.Case presentationIn this study, we reported 5 Chinese girls with 17α-hydroxylase deficiency from Henan Province. The patients all came to the hospital for hypertension, and they also presented with sexual infantilism. The average age of the patients was 14 years old, ranging from 12 to 17 years old. They all had reduced blood cortisol, estradiol (E2), and testosterone (TESTO) and increased adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), and luteinizing hormone (LH). They all had the appearance of females; however, three of the chromosome karyotypes were 46XX, and two were 46XY.ConclusionsAll of the patients carried a mutation on the 329 amino acid of CYP17A1 exon 6. By summarizing the currently known pathogenic mutations of 17α-hydroxylase deficiency, we demonstrated the prevalence of these gene mutations in Chinese Han and non-Chinese populations.

Magnetic Resonance Imaging-Based Morphological Change of Paraspinal Muscles in Girls With Adolescent Idiopathic Scoliosis.

A cross-sectional study. To investigate and compare any morphological differences in paraspinal muscles (PSM) between adolescent idiopathic scoliosis (AIS) patients (with severe or non-severe curves) and healthy controls. Several studies have reported abnormalities in biochemical, electromyographic activity, and histological changes of PSM in AIS. However, these studies only had qualitative data and without comparison with controls. Changes of muscle mass and mean density at the lumbar region have been described for scoliotic spines. All these findings suggested that imbalance of PSM in AIS could be a contributing factor to the development of severe scoliotic curve. T2-weighted MR images with multi-planar reconstruction were acquired in 41 Chinese AIS girls with a primary right-sided thoracic curve and 23 age-matched controls. In AIS, measurements of PSM were taken on both concavity and convexity of scoliosis starting from two vertebrae above and two below the apex. Morphological assessments of the multifidus (MF) and erector spinae (ES) muscles on both sides were made including signal intensity (SI) and fat deposition using manual tracing and thresholding technique, respectively. Same parameters were measured in controls at matched vertebrae. One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and Pearson correlation tests were used for statistical analysis. Abnormalities were found at concavity of muscles between AIS and controls. Significantly higher SI and fatty components was observed in AIS at MF muscles on concavity than controls (P-value <0.001). Additionally, SI at MF muscles was significantly correlated with Cobb angle. Increased SI and fatty components are asymmetrically present in PSM at apex in AIS. Our results showed higher intensity in PSM at concavity in AIS when compared with controls. There was a significant linear correlation between abnormal muscle signal and scoliotic curve. Above features are suggestive of altered muscle composition in concave PSM, possibly due to prolonged compression and reduced muscle activity of PSM caused by the spinal deformity. 4.

Between Two Worlds: Chinese Immigrant Children and the Production of Knowledge in the Era of Chinese Exclusion

Between Two Worlds: Chinese Immigrant Children and the Production of Knowledge in the Era of Chinese Exclusion

Primary dysmenorrhea and self-care strategies among Chinese college girls: a cross-sectional study

ObjectivesTo explore the prevalence of primary dysmenorrhea (PD), the characteristics of PD and self-care strategies for managing PD among Chinese college girls.DesignCross-sectional study.SettingChangsha, China.ParticipantsA total of 2555 college girls were...

Low Birthweight Is Associated with Higher Risk of High Blood Pressure in Chinese Girls: Results from a National Cross-Sectional Study in China.

Objective: To investigate the relationship between low birthweight (LBW) and blood pressure and to assess whether LBW leads to a higher risk of high blood pressure (HBP) by gender in Chinese students aged 6–18 years. Also, to investigate whether the association was affected by childhood obesity. Methods: Data was obtained from a baseline dataset of a national school-based program. Anthropometric parameters, including height, weight, and blood pressure, were measured, while birthweight and other characteristics were obtained from questionnaires. Stratified chi-squared tests were used to compare the prevalence of HBP between LBW and normal birthweight (NBW) groups in each age and sex category. Multivariable logistic regressions were conducted to estimate the HBP risks in each birthweight group. Results: Both systolic and diastolic blood pressure showed a U-shaped relationship with increased birthweight. Compared to NBW groups, LBW girls showed a higher HBP risk, with an odds ratio of 1.29 (95% confidence interval (CI): 1.02, 1.64, p = 0.033), regardless of their current body mass index status, while no significant association in boys was found. Conclusions: Low birthweight is associated with higher HBP risk in adolescent girls, regardless of their childhood BMI status.

The pubertal development mode of Chinese girls with turner syndrome undergoing hormone replacement therapy

BackgroundFurther knowledge about the pubertal development mode of girls with Turner syndrome (TS) who have undergone hormone replacement therapy (HRT) is beneficial to the proposal of an optimal HRT regimen. This study examined the pubertal development mode of girls with TS who underwent HRT and evaluated the characteristics of optimal sex induction therapy in girls with TS.MethodWe conducted a retrospective, longitudinal study over the past two decades at The First Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University.PatientsSeventy-one patients with TS and two groups of normal Chinese girls.ResultsThe total investigation time was 3.00 (2.00, 4.66) years. The interval of each stage was significantly longer (P < 0.001) in the girls with TS than that in the normal Chinese girls, except for B2–3 (P = 0.011). The uterine volumes of the girls with TS in stages B2 and 3 were greater than those of the control group (P = 0.046), whereas the uterine volume of the control group was inversely greater than that of the TS group among those who reached stages B4 and 5 (P = 0.034). During HRT, the uterine volume grew significantly from all previous stages except for breast stage 5 (B3 vs.2: Z = − 2.031; P = 0.042; B4 vs. 3: Z = − 2.273; P = 0.023; B5 vs. 4: Z = − 1.368; P = 0.171). The paired data of 27 girls with TS showed that the uterine volume (17.93 ± 9.31 ml vs. 13.75 ± 6.67 ml) and width (2.54 ± 0.66 cm vs. 2.22 ± 0.36 cm) increased significantly during artificial cycles compared with before artificial cycles (t = − 2.79 and − 2.51, P = 0.01 and 0.018).ConclusionHRT led to normal breast development in girls with TS; half of the girls with TS in our study reached Tanner stage B5, although the uterus ultimately developed suboptimally. The girls’ breasts and uteruses grew quickly at the beginning of HRT (stages B2–4). An optimal HRT regimen for girls with TS may specifically focus on Tanner stages B2–4 and artificial cycles.

Differences in Cardiorespiratory Fitness between Chinese and Japanese Children and Adolescents.

Background: This study aimed to compare the difference in cardiorespiratory fitness between Chinese and Japanese children and adolescents. Methods: Participants comprised 9025 children and adolescents aged 7–18 years from China and Japan. Cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) was measured by performance in the 20 m shuttle run test (20mSRT) and estimated maximal oxygen consumption (VO2max). Differences in CRF between countries were evaluated by t-tests. Centile curves for the 20mSRT and VO2max values were constructed for Chinese and Japanese children and adolescents, respectively, using the Lambda Mu and Sigma (LMS) method. Results: (1) For most of the age groups, the 20mSRT and VO2max performances among Chinese participants were lower than among Japanese participants. (2) Japanese children had the most apparent gains in P10, P50, and P90 VO2max values in primary school; however, they gradually decreased in middle school. For Chinese girls, the P10, P50, and P90 VO2max values decreased gradually with age. (3) The VO2max value among Japanese children increased; however, it decreased or remained flat among Chinese children in primary school. Conclusions: CRF among Chinese participants was lower than among Japanese participants while the VO2max value showed different trends in primary school. Effective measures should be taken to improve CRF among children and adolescents.

Effect of Hormone Replacement Therapy on Bone Mineral Density and Body Composition in Chinese Adolescent and Young Adult Turner Syndrome Patients.

A longitudinal observational study was performed comparing BMD and body composition in Turner syndrome girls before and after 1 year of HRT treatment. Whole body BMD, femur neck BMD, total hip BMD, and lean mass were significantly increased, but there was no difference in fat mass, and lumbar spine BMD.Purpose: Low bone mineral density (BMD) is one of the major health problems in Turner syndrome (TS) patients, and a certain percentage of TS girls are treated with hormone replacement therapy (HRT) to improve their BMD, among other health benefits. While it is generally accepted that HRT improves BMD and body composition in adolescent and young adult TS patients, studies of HRT in Chinese TS patients are limited.Methods: To investigate the effects of HRT in Chinese TS girls, we performed a longitudinal observational study which compared measurement of BMD and body composition by dual energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) using a Lunar DXA densitometer in 20 Chinese adolescent and young adult TS patients (average age = 18) before and after 1 year of HRT treatment.Results: Whole body BMD (0.85 vs. 0.87 g/cm2, P < 0.001), femur neck BMD (0.6 vs. 0.62 g/cm2, P = 0.02), total hip BMD (0.68 vs. 0.71 g/cm2, P = 0.003) and whole body lean mass (30.39 vs. 31.66 kg, P = 0.002) were significantly increased in these patients after 1 year HRT treatment, but there was no difference in whole body fat mass, android:gynoid ratio and lumbar spine BMD.Conclusions: In summary, our study found that HRT was an effective way to increase whole body BMD, femur neck BMD, total hip BMD and whole body lean mass in Chinese TS girls, with no effect on whole body fat mass, android:gynoid ratio or lumbar spine BMD.

Physical Activity and Sedentary Behaviors on Risk of Overweight and Obesity in Chinese Children and Adolescents (P16-010-19)

ObjectivesThe prevalence of overweight among Chinese children and adolescent increased steadily in the past two decades. Few studies exist even on long-term trends in physical activity in children or adolescents and very few long-term longitudinal studies have examined the association between physical activity or sedentary activity and the risk of overweight and obesity globally. MethodsWe used longitudinal data of the China Health and Nutrition Survey from 2004 to 2015 to examine the relationship among 4520 children and adolescents aged 6–18 years old. We collected detailed seven-day data on physical activity and sedentary activity, including sports and exercise, commute mode, household chores, screen time, homework, and other activities and converted them into metabolic equivalents (MET) values. We used the hybrid approach on the random-effects models to estimate the association between physical activity, sedentary activity and the risk of overweight and obesity. ResultsThe child and adolescent prevalence of overweight and obesity increased from 5.8% in 2004 to 16.5% in 2015, while physical activity decreased from 60.9 to 49.1 METs hour/week and sedentary activity increased from 26.9 to 22.9 hours/week during the same period. Controlled for age, gender, urbanization index, income, energy intake, mother’s BMI and education, and survey year, the results showed that physical activity significantly decreased the risk of overweight and obesity among girls [for 6–11 years old girls, OR = 0.37(95% CI 0.20 – 0.67); for 12–18 years old girls, OR = 0.46 (95% CI: 0.25 – 0.85)]. Sedentary activity significantly increased the risk of overweight and obesity among older girls only [OR = 1.96 (95% CI: 1.09 – 3.54)]. The association was not significant among boys. ConclusionsLow physical activity and high sedentary activity increased the risk of overweight and obesity among Chinese girls, particularly teenage girls. More studies are needed among boys. Funding SourcesThe Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD), NIH; The Fogarty International Center, NIH; Department of Nutrition & Carolina Population Center, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill; Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention.

Selfie-viewing and facial dissatisfaction among Chinese adolescents: A moderated mediation model of general attractiveness internalization and body appreciation

The present study examined whether selfie-viewing (i.e., viewing other people’s selfie posts and related likes/comments) on social networking sites (SNSs) was positively associated with adolescents’ facial dissatisfaction and whether this association was mediated by general attractiveness internalization. We also tested whether the indirect link between selfie-viewing and facial dissatisfaction by general attractiveness internalization would be moderated by body appreciation. Furthermore, potential gender differences were explored. The model was tested with 1496 Chinese adolescent boys and girls who completed questionnaires regarding selfie-viewing, general attractiveness internalization, body appreciation, and facial dissatisfaction. Results indicated that selfie-viewing was positively related to facial dissatisfaction and this relationship was mediated by general attractiveness internalization. Furthermore, body appreciation moderated the indirect relation between selfie-viewing and facial dissatisfaction via general attractiveness internalization. Gender did not moderate the mediation model. Findings from the current study provide new insights into the relation between SNS use and body image and highlight the potential value of promoting body appreciation in the prevention of body image concerns.

Comparison of various anthropometric indices in predicting abdominal obesity in Chinese children: a cross-sectional study

BackgroundFormer evidence regarding reference values of abdominal fat percentage (AFP) and optimal anthropometric indicators in predicting abdominal obesity measured by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) scan in Chinese children were scarce.MethodsA total of 452 Chinese children aged 6–9 years were included in this cross-sectional study. Abdominal fat and lean mass were measured by a DXA scan, and AFP were calculated. Anthropometric indicators including body mass index (BMI), chest circumference (CC), waist circumference (WC) and hip circumference (HC) were measured, waist-to-hip ratio (WHR), waist-to-height ratio (WHtR) was also calculated.ResultsBy defining abdominal obesity as those with an AFP ≥ 85th percentile, the cutoffs values are 24.80, 30.29, 31.58, 31.86% in boys, and 25.02, 30.32, 31.66, 31.79% in girls, for children aged 6, 7, 8, and 9 years old, respectively. All anthropometric indicators were independently and positively associated with AFP (P all < 0.01). In girls, BMI was found to be the optimal predictors of childhood abdominal obesity. The values of area under curves (AUCs) were significantly higher (P all < 0.05) than other anthropometric indicators, except for WHtR (AUCs value: 0.886). However, in boys, WHtR instead of BMI, provided the largest AUCs value (0.922) in predicting abdominal obesity, followed by BMI ((AUCs value: 0.913).ConclusionThis study provides reference values of AFP measured by DXA in Chinese children aged 6–9 years. BMI and WHtR tend to be the optimal anthropometric indicators in predicting abdominal obesity in Chinese girls and boys, respectively.

Replication Study for the Association of GWAS-associated Loci With Adolescent Idiopathic Scoliosis Susceptibility and Curve Progression in a Chinese Population.

A genetic association (replication) study. The aim of this study was to replicate and further evaluate the association among seven genome-wide association studies (GWAS)-identified single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in Chinese girls with adolescent idiopathic scoliosis (AIS) with disease onset, curve types, and progression. AIS is the most common pediatric spinal deformity with a strong genetic predisposition. Recent GWAS identified 10 new disease predisposition loci for AIS. Three hundred nineteen female AIS patients with Cobb angle ≥ 10 and 201 healthy controls were studied for the association with disease onset. Seven GWAS-identified SNPs (rs11190870 in LBX1, rs12946942 in SOX9/KCNJ2, rs13398147 in PAX3/EPH4, rs241215 in AJAP1, rs3904778 in BNC2, rs6570507 in GPR126, and rs678741 in LBX1-AS1) were analyzed. In subgroup analysis, AIS patients were subdivided by curve types and disease progression to examine for genotype association. We replicated the association with disease onset in four common SNPs rs11190870, rs3904778, rs6570507, and rs678741. In addition, rs1190870 and rs678741 remained significantly associated in the right thoracic curves only subgroup. However, no significant difference was observed with both clinical curve progression or Cobb angle. This study replicated the associations of four GWAS-associated SNPs with occurrence of AIS in our Chinese population. However, none of these SNPs was associated with curve severity and progression. The results suggest that curve progression may be determined by environmental (nongenetic) factor, but further study with a larger sample size is required to address this issue. 4.

Online interpersonal sexual objectification experiences and Chinese adolescent girls' intuitive eating: The role of broad conceptualization of beauty and body appreciation

Interpersonal sexual objectification experiences are pervasive in online communication contexts, and their influence on positive eating behaviors should not be ignored. Broad conceptualization of beauty refers to how widely women and girls define female beauty in terms of both internal and external characteristics, and body appreciation refers to loving, respecting, and holding a positive attitude toward the body. This study examined the association between online interpersonal sexual objectification (OISO) experiences and intuitive eating, as well as the mediating role of broad conceptualization of beauty and body appreciation. Participants were 1152 Chinese adolescent girls aged 11 to 15 years who completed a questionnaire survey measuring OISO experiences, broad conceptualization of beauty, body appreciation, and intuitive eating. The results showed a negative association of OISO experiences with broad conceptualization of beauty and intuitive eating. Mediation analysis using structural equation modeling showed a negative association of OISO experiences with intuitive eating through broad conceptualization of beauty and body appreciation. These results suggest that programs aiming to improve healthy eating behaviors could direct adolescent girls to criticize the appearance-focused mindset in online interaction and encourage them to focus on body functionality, such as health, creative endeavors, and communication with others.

Latent profile analysis of cultural and racial socialization among White adoptive mothers of Chinese girls

This study examined groups of cultural and racial socialization using latent profile analysis (LPA) in a sample of White adoptive mothers of Chinese girls. This study also examined mothers' and girls' characteristics associated with group membership. Participants were 215 White mothers who had adopted Chinese girls and were members of an adoption support group. LPA revealed four groups of cultural and racial socialization based on patterns of cultural and racial socialization measured by four subscales of the Transracial Adoption Parenting Scale–Revised. The study reveals the importance of using a range of approaches to support international adoptive families. Furthermore, the profiles of cultural and racial socialization hold implications for future socialization research and post-adoption support with respect to the groups to be prioritized and the strategies to be employed. In particular, post-adoption support efforts may be targeted on groups of international adoptive parents who are in the group, low cultural and low racial socialization.