Cell-like Structures Research Articles

Numerical study of granulation in anelastic thermal convection in spherical shells

The present work investigates granulation or convective flow patterns in density-stratified (or anelastic) convection in spherical shells. The density-stratified thermal convection is typically present in astrophysical systems (such as solar convection); motivated by this, we performed a series of three-dimensional anelastic convection simulations in a spherical shell geometry using an in-house developed hybrid solver. We explored the effect of Rayleigh number and density scale height on the convective flow patterns. The granulation (or cell-like structures) are more prominent at higher density scale height and Rayleigh number. The granulation is further characterized by kinetic energy and helicity spectra. Our results support the argument that the convective flow patterns (or granulation) emerge due to inverse cascade owing to the presence of density stratification. Convective patterns (or granulation) are identified based on length scales, time scales, and flow velocity. The length scale of granules is further verified using a solar granulation model. Our analysis suggests the existence of inverse cascade and supergranulation on the spherical surface due to density-stratified thermal convection in spherical shells.

Multi-compartmentalized electrochemical sensing platforms for monitoring cascade enzymatic reactions

Designing an electrochemical biosensor with the required features is a complex process involving multiple factors. For instance, nanocomposite materials used ensure the adaptation of the sensor to specific parameters on demand. But beyond making more versatile sensors, these materials likely offer excellent sensing platforms to mimic biological processes (e.g. cell communication) on the electrode surface. For this, developed methods are needed to integrate non-conductive nanoreactors for molecular communication into a biocompatible matrix on electrode surfaces with the request of spatially separated and controlled enzyme localization. Here, we present a novel reduced graphene oxide hybrid material to immobilize polymeric nanoreactors supported by an alginate network as a matrix on the electrode surface. The possibility of introducing cascade reactions in an electrochemical biosensor has the advantage of broadening the target substrates as well as their selectivity using enzymes in different nanocompartments (=compartmentalization). The polymeric vesicles allow the loading of enzymes or artificial enzymes, offering active center retention and long-term enzyme stability. Firstly, the inclusion of spatially separated polymeric active nanocompartments into the matrix on the electrode surface is used to monitor a simple enzyme reaction. However, the study’s accomplishment lies in its successful ability to monitor an enzyme cascade reaction, one producing and the other consuming hydrogen peroxide, hosting natural and artificial enzymes. This proof-of-concept generates an important contribution to the design of analytical platforms capable of detecting complex environments or even monitoring communication between cell-like structures, extremely useful for fields such as synthetic biology, biomimetics and advanced biosensors.

Layered complexity, reorganisational ability and self-healing mechanisms of heteropolysaccharide solutions

Heteropolysaccharides are among the most widely distributed compounds in nature, acting as both tissue building blocks and as a source of nutrients. Their physicochemical and biological properties have been studied thoroughly; however, the microstructural properties of heteropolysaccharides are still poorly understood. This study aims to investigate the micro-structural peculiarities of agarose, gum arabic, hyaluronic and alginic acids by means of confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) and cryogenic scanning electron microscopy (cryo-SEM). Herein, attention is paid to layered complexity of the microstructure differentiating surface, under surface, inner, and substrate interface layers. The scale and pattern of the polysaccharide’s microstructure depend on the concentration, changing from lamellae to cell-like porous structures. This work provides the insight into micro- and nanoscale mechanisms of self-healing and substrate-induced reorganisation. Thus, investigation of the self-healing mechanism revealed that this diffusion-based process starts from the fibres, turning into lamellae, following by cell-like structures with smaller dimensions. Investigation of the substrate-induced reorganisation ability showed that nano-to-micro (scale) porous substrate causes reorganisation in the interface layer of the studied heteropolysaccharides. This work contributes to understanding the structural peculiarities of heteropolysaccharides by looking at them through a supramolecular, micro-level prism.

The bubble theory: exploring the transition from first replicators to cells and viruses in a landscape-based scenario

This study proposes a landscape-based scenario for the origin of viruses and cells, focusing on the adaptability of preexisting replicons from the RNP (ribonucleoprotein) world. The scenario postulates that life emerged in a subterranean “warm little pond” where organic matter accumulated, resulting in a prebiotic soup rich in nucleotides, amino acids, and lipids, which served as nutrients for the first self-replicating entities. Over time, the RNA world, followed by the RNP world, came into existence. Replicators/replicons, along with the nutritious soup from the pond, were washed out into the river and diluted. Lipid bubbles, enclosing organic matter, provided the last suitable environment for replicons to replicate. Two survival strategies emerged under these conditions: cell-like structures that obtained nutrients by merging with new bubbles, and virus-like entities that developed various techniques to transmit themselves to fresh bubbles. The presented hypothesis provides the possibility for the common origin of cells and viruses on rocky worlds hosting liquid water, like Earth.

Rapid Diagenesis and Microbial Biosignature Degradation in Spring Carbonates from Crystal Geyser, Utah

Carbonate rocks retain a well preserved record of biologically associated structures at the outcrop to millimeter scale, however microscale features such as cellular fossils are rarely represented. The lack of microscale textural information in ancient carbonates is commonly attributed to processes relating to carbonate diagenesis. However, there are relatively few examples of precisely how and when these destructive processes occur, particularly in active precipitating systems. To better understand the taphonomy of carbonate precipitating environments through early diagenesis, we investigated Crystal Geyser, an active cold water carbonate spring ( about 18 deg C) located in Grand County, Utah. Here we show that rapid precipitation is effective at initially capturing cell-like structures and forming associated microscale laminated stromatolites; however, these morphologies degrade immediately after their formation. We attribute destructive diagenetic effects to the recrystallization of metastable aragonite into the more stable polymorph calcite (i.e., inversion) and the associated textural coarsening that homogenizes and erases the original fabric (i.e., aggrading neomorphism). Despite the loss of microscale morphological information, chemical biosignatures in the form of macromolecular organics remain dispersed throughout the disrupted carbonate textures. These observations provide an example of penecontemporaneous diagenesis that obliterates primary microscale textures in carbonate rocks. Similar mechanisms and their rapid timing, as shown here, likely contributes to the observed lack of microscale morphological biosignatures in many ancient carbonates. This work further highlights that within such systems, permineralization by a more stable crystalline phase, such as chert, must occur rapidly after deposition to effectively retain these signatures over geological timescales.

Nucleation-Inhibited Emulsion Interfacial Assembled Polydopamine Microvesicles as Artificial Antigen-Presenting Cells.

Albeit microemulsion systems have emerged as efficient platforms for fabricating tunable nano/microstructures, lack of understanding on the emulsion-interfacial assembly hindered the control of fabrication. Herein, a nucleation-inhibited microemulsion interfacial assembly method is proposed, which deviates from conventional interfacial nucleation approaches, for the synthesis of polydopamine microvesicles (PDA MVs). These PDA MVs exhibit an approximate diameter of 1µm, showcasing a pliable structure reminiscent of cellular morphology. Through modifications of antibodies on the surface of PDA MVs, their capacity as artificial antigen presentation cells is evaluated. In comparison to solid nanoparticles, PDA MVs with cell-like structures show enhanced T-cell activation, resulting in a 1.5-fold increase in CD25 expression after 1 day and a threefold surge in PD-1 positivity after 7 days. In summary, the research elucidates the influence of nucleation and interfacial assembly in microemulsion polymerization systems, providing a direct synthesis method for MVs and substantiating their effectiveness as artificial antigen-presenting cells.

Non-circular pressure swirl nozzles injecting into stagnant air

As far as we are aware, all the previous studies have focused on circular injectors. Here, the effect of non-circular orifice shape on pressure swirl injector was investigated experimentally. For this purpose, three injectors; circular, square and rectangular were manufactured. The nozzles had the same cross-sectional area. Water was used as the working fluid and tests were conducted at room temperature and pressure. The Weber number varied from 484 to 1936. Flow parameters of the swirl jets were obtained by an in-house image processing code. The measured parameters were: discharge coefficient, spray angle, breakup length, lateral spread, SMD of drops and wavelength of surface waves formed on the cone. The influence of nozzle shape on all these parameters are discussed.A new breakup regime morphology for non-circular pressure swirl nozzles was defined. At lower Weber numbers, the air core was trapped inside the liquid sheet and relatively large ligaments were formed and separated from the edges (fiber breakup regime). As the Weber number was increased Rayleigh-Taylor instability produced cell-like structures near the nozzle exit. These cell-like structures eventually broke up at the thickened edges of the cells and formed Christmas tree like structures (Christmas tree regime). We found that all the measured flow parameters can best be correlated as a function of Reynolds number and Weber number based on liquid sheet thickness at nozzle exit. All these correlations were reported. Breakup length and lateral spread were heavily influenced by the breakup regime. In fiber breakup regime the breakup length and lateral spread increased with increasing Weber number. However, in Christmas tree (cellular) breakup regime, breakup length and lateral spread decreased with increasing Weber number.

Ion Transport Basis of Diarrhea, Paneth Cell Metaplasia, and Upregulation of Mechanosensory Pathway in Anti-CD40 Colitis Mice.

Anti-Cluster of differentiation (CD)-40-induced colitis, driven by innate inflammatory responses in the intestine, is a potent animal model exhibiting IBD pathophysiology including diarrhea. However, the ion transport basis of diarrhea and some key mucosal pathways (Paneth cells, stem cell niche, and mechanosensory) in this model have not been investigated. Mucosal scrapings and intestinal tissue from control and CD40 antibody (150 µg) treated Rag2-/- mice were examined for gut inflammation, Paneth cell numbers, expression of key transporters, tight/adherens junction proteins, stem cell niche, and mechanosensory pathway via hematoxylin and eosin staining, quantitative polymerase chain reaction, and western blotting. Compared with control, anti-CD40 antibody treatment resulted in a significant loss of body weight (P < .05) and diarrhea at day 3 postinjection. Distal colonic tissues of anti-CD40 mice exhibited increased inflammatory infiltrates, higher claudin-2 expression, and appearance of Paneth cell-like structures indicative of Paneth cell metaplasia. Significantly reduced expression (P < .005) of downregulated in adenoma (key Cl- transporter), P-glycoprotein/multidrug resistantance-1 (MDR1, xenobiotic transporter), and adherens junction protein E-cadherin (~2-fold P < .05) was also observed in the colon of anti-CD40 colitis mice. Interestingly, there were also marked alterations in the stem cell markers and upregulation of the mechanosensory YAP-TAZ pathway, suggesting the activation of alternate regeneration pathway post-tissue injury in this model. Our data demonstrate that the anti-CD40 colitis model shows key features of IBD observed in the human disease, hence making it a suitable model to investigate the pathophysiology of ulcerative colitis (UC).

Pioneering artificial cell-like structures with DNA nanotechnology-based liquid-liquid phase separation.

Recent studies have revealed that liquid-liquid phase separation (LLPS) plays crucial roles in various cellular functions. Droplets formed via LLPS within cells, often referred to as membraneless organelles, serve to concentrate specific molecules, thus enhancing biochemical reactions. Artificial LLPS systems have been utilized to construct synthetic cell models, employing a range of synthetic molecules. LLPS systems based on DNA nanotechnology are particularly notable for their designable characteristics in droplet formation, dynamics, properties, and functionalities. This review surveys recent advancements in DNA-based LLPS systems, underscoring the programmability afforded by DNA's base-pair specific interactions. We discuss the fundamentals of DNA droplet formation, including temperature-dependence and physical properties, along with the precise control achievable through sequence design. Attention is given to the phase separation of DNA nanostructures on two-dimensional closed interfaces, which results in spatial pattern formation at the interface. Furthermore, we spotlight the potential of DNA droplet computing for cancer diagnostics through specific microRNA pattern recognition. We envision that DNA-based LLPS presents a versatile platform for the exploration of cellular mimicry and opens innovative ways for the development of functional synthetic cells.

Single-cell analysis in hypersaline brines predicts a water-activity limit of microbial anabolic activity.

Hypersaline brines provide excellent opportunities to study extreme microbial life. Here, we investigated anabolic activity in nearly 6000 individual cells from solar saltern sites with water activities (aw) ranging from 0.982 to 0.409 (seawater to extreme brine). Average anabolic activity decreased exponentially with aw, with nuanced trends evident at the single-cell level: The proportion of active cells remained high (>50%) even after NaCl saturation, and subsets of cells spiked in activity as aw decreased. Intracommunity heterogeneity in activity increased as seawater transitioned to brine, suggesting increased phenotypic heterogeneity with increased physiological stress. No microbial activity was detected in the 0.409-aw brine (an MgCl2-dominated site) despite the presence of cell-like structures. Extrapolating our data, we predict an aw limit for detectable anabolic activity of 0.540, which is beyond the currently accepted limit of life based on cell division. This work demonstrates the utility of single-cell, metabolism-based techniques for detecting active life and expands the potential habitable space on Earth and beyond.

Role of LL-37 in Oral Bacterial DNA Accumulation in Dental Plaque

Dental plaque, a highly structured polymicrobial biofilm, persistently forms in the oral cavity and is a common problem affecting oral health. The role of oral defense factors in either collaborating or disrupting host–microbiome interactions remains insufficiently elucidated. This study aims to explore the role of LL-37, a critical antimicrobial peptide in the oral cavity, in dental plaque formation. Through immunostaining dental plaque specimens, we observed that LL-37 and DNA colocalized in the samples, appearing as condensed clusters. In vitro experiments revealed that LL-37 binds rapidly to oral bacterial DNA, forming high molecular weight, DNase-resistant complexes. This interaction results in LL-37 losing its inherent antibacterial activity. Further, upon the addition of LL-37, we observed a visible increase in the precipitation of bacterial DNA. We also discovered a significant correlation between the levels of the DNA–LL-37 complex and LL-37 within dental plaque specimens, demonstrating the ubiquity of the complex within the biofilm. By using immunostaining on dental plaque specimens, we could determine that the DNA–LL-37 complex was present as condensed clusters and small bacterial cell-like structures. This suggests that LL-37 immediately associates with the released bacterial DNA to form complexes that subsequently diffuse. We also demonstrated that the complexes exhibited similar Toll-like receptor 9–stimulating activities across different bacterial species, including Porphyromonas gingivalis, Fusobacterium nucleatum, Prevotella intermedia, and Streptococcus salivarius. However, these complexes prompted dissimilar activities, such as the production of IL-1β in monocytic cells via both NLRP3 pathway-dependent and pathway-independent mechanisms. This study, therefore, reveals the adverse role of LL-37 in dental plaque, where it binds bacterial DNA to form complexes that may precipitate to behave like an extracellular matrix. Furthermore, the unveiled stimulating properties and species-dependent activities of the oral bacterial DNA–LL-37 complexes enrich our understanding of dental plaque pathogenicity and periodontal innate immune responses.

Mucinous Tubular and Spindle Cell Carcinoma of Kidney: A Case Report of a Rare Tumor

The objective of this research is to enhance the understanding and recognition of Mucinous Tubular and Spindle Cell Carcinoma of the Kidney (MTSCC-K), a rare renal tumor occurring in less than 1% of all renal tumors. The focus is on improving clinical diagnosis, understanding the tumor's characteristics, and exploring the prognosis and implications for patients. The method used in this research is a case study. The results of this research indicate that Clinical Presentation: MTSCC-K predominantly occurs in women and often presents with flank pain, similar to other renal tumors. However, it may lack other typical symptoms such as significant weight loss or urinary problems. Imaging Characteristics: CT scans may reveal solid masses with patchy calcification, often protruding outside the renal contour. These specific imaging features can aid in the differential diagnosis of MTSCC-K Histopathological Features: MTSCC-K is characterized by small, elongated cords or tubules arranged densely, with interspersed myxoid stroma. The presence of slender tubular spindle cell-like structures is a distinctive feature Prognosis: Patients with MTSCC-K, especially when diagnosed early and treated with radical nephrectomy, have a comparatively good prognosis compared to other renal cell carcinomas. The lack of identified metastases in the presented case also supports a positive prognosis. Implications of this research include: Increased awareness among doctors and radiologists about the unique clinical and imaging features of MTSCC-K can lead to faster and more accurate diagnoses.

Fabrication and mechanical characterization of hydrogel-based 3D cell-like structures.

In this article, we demonstrate the fabrication of 3D cell-like structures using a femtosecond laser-based two-photon polymerization technique. By employing poly(ethylene glycol) diacrylate monomers as a precursor solution, we fabricate 3D hemispheres that resemble morphological and biomechanical characteristics of natural cells. We employ an optical tweezers-based microrheology technique to measure the viscoelastic properties of the precursor solutions inside and outside the structures. In addition, we demonstrate the interchangeability of the precursor solution within fabricated structures without impairing the microstructures. The combination of two-photon polymerization and microrheological measurements by optical tweezers demonstrated here represents a powerful toolbox for future investigations into cell mimic and artificial cell studies.

Multi-compartmental MOF microreactors derived from Pickering double emulsions for chemo-enzymatic cascade catalysis

Bioinspired multi-compartment architectures are desired in synthetic biology and metabolic engineering, as credited by their cell-like structures and intrinsic ability of assembling catalytic species for spatiotemporal control over cascade reactions like in living systems. Herein, we describe a general Pickering double emulsion-directed interfacial synthesis method for the fabrication of multicompartmental MOF microreactors. This approach employs multiple liquid–liquid interfaces as a controllable platform for the self-completing growth of dense MOF layers, enabling the microreactor with tailor-made inner architectures and selective permeability. Importantly, simultaneous encapsulation of incompatible functionalities, including hydrophilic enzyme and hydrophobic molecular catalyst, can be realized in a single MOF microreactor for operating chemo-enzymatic cascade reactions. As exemplified by the Grubb’ catalyst/CALB lipase driven olefin metathesis/ transesterification cascade reaction and glucose oxidase (GOx)/Fe-porphyrin catalyzed oxidation reaction, the multicompartmental microreactor exhibits 2.24–5.81 folds enhancement in cascade reaction efficiency in comparison to the homogeneous counterparts or physical mixture of individual analogues, due to the restrained mutual inactivation and substrate channelling effects. Our study prompts further design of multicompartment systems and the development of artificial cells capable of complex cellular transformations.

Pickering Emulsion Droplet-Derived Multicompartmentalized Microspheres for Innovative Applications.

Multicompartmentalized microspheres with multilevel and complex interior structures have great potential in practical applications due to their cell-like structures and microscale dimension. The Pickering emulsion droplet-confined synthesis route has been demonstrated to be a promising strategy for fabricating multicompartmentalized microspheres. Since Pickering emulsion-templated formation of hollow microspheres is an interface-directed process in which the growth of shells occurs at the oil/water interface and the confined space of Pickering emulsion droplet accommodates a variety of behaviors, such as surfactant-guided assembly growth, confined pyrolysis transformation, tritemplated growth, and bottom-up assembly, the independent and free regulation of the interface and internal structure of microspheres is allowed. In this Perspective, we highlight the recent progress in the synthesis of microparticles with tunable interior structures via the Pickering emulsion droplet-based approach. And we delve into the innovative applications of these multilevel-structured microparticles benefiting from their biomimetic multicompartments. Finally, some fundamental challenges and opportunities are identified for regulating the interior structure within microspheres and promoting practical applications by virtue of the Pickering emulsion droplet-confined synthesis pathway.

Impacts of microplastics and the associated plastisphere on physiological, biochemical, genetic expression and gut microbiota of the filter-feeder amphioxus

Oceanic plastic pollution is of major concern to marine organisms, especially filter feeders. However, limited is known about the toxic effects of the weathered microplastics instead of the pristine ones. This study evaluates the effects of weathered polystyrene microplastic on a filter-feeder amphioxus under starvation conditions via its exposure to the microplastics previously deployed in the natural seawater allowing for the development of a mature biofilm (so-called plastisphere). The study focused on the integration of physiological, histological, biochemical, molecular, and microbiota impacts on amphioxus. Overall, specific alterations in gene expression of marker genes were observed to be associated with oxidative stresses and immune systems. Negligible impacts were observed on antioxidant biochemical activities and gut microbiota of amphioxus, while we highlighted the potential transfer of 12 bacterial taxa from the plastisphere to the amphioxus gut microbiota. Moreover, the classical perturbation of body shape detected in control animals under starvation conditions (a slim and curved body) but not for amphioxus exposed to microplastic, indicates that the microorganisms colonizing plastics could serve as a nutrient source for this filter-feeder, commitment with the elevated proportions of goblet cell-like structures after the microplastic exposure. The multidisciplinary approach developed in this study underlined the trait of microplastics that acted as vectors for transporting microorganisms from the plastisphere to amphioxus.

Influence of highly doped layers on hydrogen in-diffusion into crystalline silicon

In this work, the influence of highly doped layers on the hydrogen in-diffusion into silicon from hydrogen-rich silicon nitride is investigated. Hydrogen in the crystalline silicon bulk of wafers with and without highly doped layers present was examined in solar cell-like structures by resistivity measurements for quantification of BH-pair dynamics. Hydrogen diffusion through phosphorus- and boron-doped Float-Zone samples without highly doped layers and with p + - respectively n + -layers was determined via secondary ion mass spectrometry. Therefore, deuterium concentration in an amorphous silicon layer on the backside was measured. This experiment shows an up to threefold increase of deuterium concentration in the amorphous layer for samples with highly doped layers present. A possible explanation of this observation is given by simulations. • Influence of highly doped layers on H in-diffusion. • BH-pair dynamics in samples with and without highly doped layers. • SIMS data of D diffusing through highly doped layers and bulk c-Si. • Simulations of H-species in samples with n + -p-n + structure after firing.

Evolutionary diversification of paleoproterozoic prokaryotes: New microfossil records in 1.88 Ga Gunflint Formation

The evolutionary history of early prokaryotes is recorded in Paleoproterozoic sedimentary rocks. The ca. 1.88 Ga Gunflint Formation is considered key to constrain the course of Paleoproterozoic microbial evolution. However, whether the multicellularity of prokaryote and eukaryote was already present by the Gunflint age remains uncertain. Here, we report novel morphotypes of prokaryotes including colonial, ellipsoidal, spherical, with intracellular inclusions (ICIs), spinous-type, and tail-bearing type, in the Gunflint stromatolitic chert. Biogenicity of such morphotypes was indicated based on their unique microstructures with the parallel C, N, and S distributions and lack of evidence of their post-depositional artifact origin. The new finding of colonial-type microbes in the Gunflint Formation indicates global flourishment of the colonial-type in this age. Moreover, unknown spherical cell-like structures with ICIs were identified, along with microfossils bearing strong similarities to cyanobacterial akinetes. ICIs were more enriched in N-bearing organic compounds than cell wall organic matter. Those ICIs were interpreted as biological contracted protoplasts. These new findings suggest that Paleoproterozoic prokaryotes were more diverse and complex than previously considered and had already acquired adaptability to survive drastic environmental changes. Furthermore, the protruding appendages in the novel spine- and tail-bearing type microfossils likely provided them with advantages in nutrient access and motility respectively, resulting in the promotion of the intercellular interactions. This suggests that functional evolution toward eukaryotes had already started in the Gunflint age.

Progress on Crowding Effect in Cell-like Structures.

Several biological macromolecules, such as proteins, nucleic acids, and polysaccharides, occupy about 30% of the space in cells, resulting in a crowded macromolecule environment. The crowding effect within cells exerts an impact on the functions of biological components, the assembly behavior of biomacromolecules, and the thermodynamics and kinetics of metabolic reactions. Cell-like structures provide confined and independent compartments for studying the working mechanisms of cells, which can be used to study the physiological functions arising from the crowding effect of macromolecules in cells. This article mainly summarizes the progress of research on the macromolecular crowding effects in cell-like structures. It includes the effects of this crowding on actin assembly behavior, tubulin aggregation behavior, and gene expression. The challenges and future trends in this field are presented at the end of the paper.

Transition from Dendritic to Cell-like Crystalline Structures in Drying Droplets of Fetal Bovine Serum under the Influence of Temperature.

The desiccation of biofluid droplets leads to the formation of complex deposits which are morphologically affected by the environmental conditions, such as temperature. In this work, we examine the effect of substrate temperatures between 20 and 40 °C on the desiccation deposits of fetal bovine serum (FBS) droplets. The final dried deposits consist of different zones: a peripheral protein ring, a zone of protein structures, a protein gel, and a central crystalline zone. We focus on the crystalline zone showing that its morphological and topographical characteristics vary with substrate temperature. The area of the crystalline zone is found to shrink with increasing substrate temperature. Additionally, the morphology of the crystalline structures changes from dendritic at 20 °C to cell-like for substrate temperatures between 25 and 40 °C. Calculation of the thermal and solutal Bénard–Marangoni numbers shows that while thermal effects are negligible when drying takes place at 20 °C, for higher substrate temperatures (25–40 °C), both thermal and solutal convective effects manifest within the drying drops. Thermal effects dominate earlier in the evaporation process leading, we believe, to the development of instabilities and, in turn, to the formation of convective cells in the drying drops. Solutal effects, on the other hand, are dominant toward the end of drying, maintaining circulation within the cells and leading to crystallization of salts in the formed cells. The cell-like structures are considered to form because of the interplay between thermal and solutal convection during drying. Dendritic growth is associated with a thicker fluid layer in the crystalline zone compared to cell-like growth with thinner layers. For cell-like structures, we show that the number of cells increases and the area occupied by each cell decreases with temperature. The average distance between cells decreases linearly with substrate temperature.