Cell-battery Hybrid Research Articles

Development of Hydrogen Fuel Cell–Battery Hybrid Multicopter System Thermal Management and Power Management System Based on AMESim

Urban Air Mobility (UAM) is gaining attention as a solution to urban population growth and air pollution. Hydrogen fuel cells are applied to overcome the limitations of battery-based UAM, utilizing a PEMFC (Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cell) with batteries in a hybrid system to enhance responsiveness. Power management improves efficiency through effective power distribution under varying loads, while thermal management maintains optimal stack temperatures to prevent degradation. This study developed a hydrogen fuel cell–battery hybrid multicopter system using AMESim, consisting of a 138 kW fuel cell stack, 60 kW battery, DC–DC converters, and thrust motors. A rule-based power management system was implemented to define power distribution strategies based on SOC and load demand. The system’s operating range was designed to allocate power according to battery SOC and load variations. For an initial SOC of 45%, the power management system distributed power for flight, and the results showed that the state machine control system reduced hydrogen consumption by 5.85% and parasitic energy by 1.63% compared to the rule-based system.

Safety-involved co-optimization of speed trajectory and energy management for fuel cell-battery electric vehicle in car-following scenarios

Vehicle connectivity technologies has propelled integrated optimization of vehicle’s motion and power splitting becoming a hotspot in eco-driving control research. However, the security issues and power sources life loss of fuel cell-battery hybrid electric vehicle (FCHEV) are still challenging due to disturbances and power sources degradation. To address these problems, in this paper, control barrier function (CBF) based multi-objective energy management strategy (EMS) for FCHEV in car-following process is proposed. Firstly, the state of health models of fuel cell and battery are established to reflect the relationship between power sources degradation and energy consumption. Secondly, multi-objective model predictive control (MPC) based EMS framework is developed by comprehensive considering tracking performance, comfort, fuel consumption and power sources life loss. Thirdly, to robustly cope with disturbances and uncertainties, discrete-time CBFs are designed to enforce safety-critical constraints related to safety issues of both vehicle dynamics and powertrain operation in MPC. Finally, comprehensive simulations in extreme and long driving cycle testing scenarios show the proposed strategy can prevent vehicles from entering unsafe states, while improving fuel economy by 9.95%, reducing power sources life loss by 6.53%.

Development of optimal energy management strategy for proton exchange membrane fuel cell-battery hybrid system for drone propulsion

Development of optimal energy management strategy for proton exchange membrane fuel cell-battery hybrid system for drone propulsion

Machine learning modeling for fuel cell-battery hybrid power system dynamics in a Toyota Mirai 2 vehicle under various drive cycles

Machine learning modeling for fuel cell-battery hybrid power system dynamics in a Toyota Mirai 2 vehicle under various drive cycles

Digital Twin-Enhanced Control for Fuel Cell and Lithium-Ion Battery Hybrid Vehicles

With the development of lithium-ion batteries and fuel cells, the application of hybrid power systems is becoming more and more widespread. To better optimize the energy management problem of fuel cell hybrid systems, the accuracy of system modeling and simulation is very important. The hybrid system is formed by connecting the battery to the fuel cell through an active topology. Digital twin technology is applicable to the mapping of physical entities to each other with high interactivity and fast optimization iterations. In this paper, a relevant model based on mathematical logic is established by collecting actual operational data; subsequently, the accuracy of the model is verified by combining relevant operating conditions and simulating the model. Subsequently, a three-dimensional visualization model of a hybrid power system-based sightseeing vehicle and its operating environment was established using digital twin technology to improve the model simulation of the fuel cell hybrid power system. At low speeds, the simulation results of the hybrid power system-based sightseeing vehicle have a small error compared with the actual running state, and the accuracy of the data related to each internal subcomponent is high. In the simple interaction between the model display vehicle and the environment, the communication state can meet the basic requirements of the digital twin model because the amount of data to be transferred is small. This study makes a preliminary attempt at digital parallelism by combining mathematical logic with visualization models and can be used as a basis for the subsequent development of more mature digital twin models.

Multi-Objective Optimization Strategy for Fuel Cell Hybrid Electric Trucks Based on Driving Patern Recognition

Fuel cell hybrid electric trucks have become a cutting-edge field in understanding urban traffic emissions due to their enormous potential in low-carbon areas. In order to improve the economy of fuel cell hybrid electric trucks and reduce the decline of fuel cell lifespan, this paper proposes a multi-objective energy management strategy that optimizes weight coefficients. On the basis of establishing a fuel cell battery hybrid system model, three modes of uniform speed, acceleration, and deceleration were identified through clustering analysis of vehicle speed. Reinforcement learning algorithms were used to learn the corresponding weights for different modes, which reduced the decline in fuel cell life while improving the economic efficiency. The simulation results indicate that, under the conditions of no load, half load, and full load, the truck only sacrificed 0.9–5.6%, 1.7–2.6%, and 1.2–1.6% SOC, saving 5.7–6.45%, 5.9–6.67%, and 6.1–6.67% in lifespan loss, and reducing hydrogen consumption by 3.0–7.1%, 2.8–4.4%, and 1.0–3.0%, respectively.

Data‐Driven Prediction of Li‐Ion Battery and PEM Fuel Cell Performance Degradations for Balanced Optimal Energy Management of Electrified Propulsion Systems

With the increasing pace of commercialization, the proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) system‐powered fuel cell electric vehicles/vessels (FCEVs) present a highly efficient, zero tailpipe emission propulsion solution. A battery energy storage system (BESS) is normally integrated with the PEMFC system to improve its performance, energy efficiency and operational life. However, both the PEMFC system and the BESS suffer from relatively short operation life and high replacement costs. Optimal energy management strategies (EMSs) become essential to improve their working conditions, thus extending their working life based on their distinct performance degradation behaviours and achieving the minimum lifecycle costs (LCCs). Extending from the present static modelling approach, this research introduces three new methods for dynamically updating the performance and degradation models of lithium‐ion (Li‐ion) batteries and PEMFCs using real‐time operation data of a fuel cell–battery hybrid electric propulsion system. The combined methods more accurately capture the performance and capability of each specific fuel cell hybrid propulsion system’s BESS and PEMFC system. This enables precise performance tracking, degradation assessment and optimal energy management. A new integrated approach to the hybrid electric propulsion system’s component sizing design optimization and optimal energy management is introduced using these new modelling schemes, minimizing the LCC by balancing the propulsion system performance, fuel economy and the BESS and PEMFC system degradations. These modelling and optimization methods are applied to a medium‐sized vehicle and passenger ferry to produce the optimal fuel cell–battery hybrid propulsion system design and EMS to strike the best balance between fuel efficiency and the PEMFC and BESS operation life.

Design and Implementation of High-Efficiency and Compact Fuel Cell–Battery Hybrid Power System

This paper proposes a high-efficiency and compact fuel cell–battery hybrid power system without DC/DC converters. Generally, fuel cells supply power to charge lithium batteries or loads using DC/DC converters. The disadvantages of a DC/DC converter are its complex design, poor efficiency, and large volume. Therefore, improvements in the volume, weight, and efficiency are the main objectives of the proposed topology, which is suitable for stable operation in power equipment. This paper proposes a novel topology without DC/DC converters for a fuel cell–battery hybrid forklift system and analyzes, discusses, and verifies it with experimental measurements. Additionally, the proposed topology uses an average charging method to charge the Li-ion battery. The dynamic response of fuel cells is slower than that of Li-ion batteries. By properly configuring the voltages of a fuel cell and a lithium battery, we propose a hybrid system that can maintain a stable output and high efficiency in different operating modes without DC/DC converters. Detailed efficiency calculations and comparisons reveal that the method proposed in this paper achieves an efficiency increase of 5.36% compared with traditional approaches, while maintaining a set charging current. The proposed topology and charging method are verified with experiments on a 10 kW fuel cell–battery system, and the results indicate that the proposed method without DC/DC converters is more suitable for hybrid applications than traditional methods. The proposed system achieves optimal efficiency of 98.27%, surpassing the performance of a traditional hybrid system employing regulated DC/DC converters. Additionally, the system incorporates a mechanism to achieve constant current control, ensuring precise control over the desired charging current. The error in the desired charging current, determined through the average charging method, is 5%.

Modeling and Detailed Analysis of Rule Based, Conventional Fuzzy and Type-II Fuzzy Logic Energy Management Systems of Fuel Cell-Battery Hybrid Powered Unmanned Aerial Vehicles

Modeling and Detailed Analysis of Rule Based, Conventional Fuzzy and Type-II Fuzzy Logic Energy Management Systems of Fuel Cell-Battery Hybrid Powered Unmanned Aerial Vehicles

Techno–economic analysis of fuel cell powered urban air mobility system

Techno–economic analysis of fuel cell powered urban air mobility system

Low pressure influence on a direct fuel cell battery hybrid system for aviation

Low pressure influence on a direct fuel cell battery hybrid system for aviation

Dynamic Simulation Model and Experimental Validation of One Passive Fuel Cell–Battery Hybrid Powertrain for an Electric Light Scooter

Given the escalating issue of climate change, environmental protection is of growing importance. A rising proportion of battery-powered scooters are becoming available. However, their range is limited, and they require a long charging time. The fuel cell–battery-powered electric scooter appears to be a promising alternative. Further development of the active hybrid is the passive hybrid, in which the fuel cell is directly coupled to the battery, eliminating the need for a DC/DC converter. The passive hybrid promises the possibility of a reduction in the installation volume and cost. A simulation model is created MATLAB/Simulink for the passive fuel cell–battery hybrid electric scooter. It specifically focuses on how the power split between the fuel cell and battery occurs under dynamic load requirements. The scooter is powered by two air–hydrogen Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC) systems with a nominal power of 250 W each and a Li-ion battery (48 V, 12 Ah). The validation is performed following an ECE-R47 driving cycle. The maximum relative deviation of the fuel cell is 2.82% for the current value. The results of the simulation show a high level of agreement with the test data. This study provides a method allowing for an efficient assessment of the passive fuel cell–battery hybrid electric scooter.

A Scalable Segmented-Based PEM Fuel Cell Hybrid Power System Model and Its Simulation Applications

A scalable segmented-based proton-exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) hybrid power system model is developed in this paper. The fuel cell (FC) is developed as a dynamic lumped parameter model to predict the current distributions during dynamic load scenarios. The fuel cell is segmented into 3×3 segments connected with several physical ports and with the variables balanced automatically. Based on the proposed model, a real-time energy management framework is designed to distribute the load current demand during dynamic operations. Simulation results show that the proposed strategy has good performance on both single/segmented fuel cell–battery hybrid systems and the low battery state of charge (SOC) situation. This paper proposes an approach that uses an interconnected ordinary differential equations (ODEs) system model in control problems, which makes the control algorithms readily applicable.

Life cycle assessment of solid oxide fuel cell vehicles in a natural gas producing country; comparison with proton electrolyte fuel cell, battery and gasoline vehicles

Life cycle assessment of solid oxide fuel cell vehicles in a natural gas producing country; comparison with proton electrolyte fuel cell, battery and gasoline vehicles

Fuel cell/battery power supply system operational strategy to secure the durability of commercial hydrogen vehicles

Durability is an urgent issue that needs to be addressed for hydrogen mobility using proton exchange membrane fuel cell to gain a solid edge in the transportation industry. Although many studies of fuel cell durability have already been conducted, they still need to be broadened to those focusing on the mechanical shapes of essential parts or establishing a control strategy at the stack level. In order to address the durability issue associated with these vehicles, it is desirable to establish a control strategy at the vehicle system level. This study devised a fuel cell system analysis model in an existing laboratory and a simulation model equipped with a battery model for an existing large vehicle model, with World Harmonized Transient Cycle speed profile driving then conducted. Three fuel cell control strategies considering the State of Charge and vehicle speed were established, and the durability and fuel efficiency were evaluated through repeated simulations. A control strategy suitable for durability protection was evaluated by observing the fuel cell’s current behavior. The fuel economy was evaluated using the fuel cell-battery hybrid fuel efficiency conversion protocol described in SAE-J2572. As a simulation result of the model designed by selecting the current target range from 0 to 500A, the step and fuzzy control showed a current spectrum concentrated at about 100A. The range control showed a homogeneous distribution from 0A to 500A. A control strategy suitable for durability can be established by selectively applying step control and fuzzy control according to the range of State of Charge.

Pre-Sizing Approach of a Fuel Cell-Battery Hybrid Power System with Interleaved Converters

This paper proposes a design methodology that is dedicated to improving the concept of a modular hybrid power chain that uses interleaved converters. The approach involves optimising the system under multi-physical constraints, where the number of cells in the interleaved converters is considered as a key modular parameter. The methodology uses analytical models to strike a balance between computation time and result accuracy. This compromise is indispensable to the construction of a smart design approach under multi-physical constraints, such as electric, efficiency, volume, and thermal constraints. The proposed approach has been applied to a hybrid fuel cell and battery power system for automotive applications; the goal is to obtain a global optimal architecture chain by optimising the number of interleaved converter cells and by determining appropriate power electronics components and the optimal sizing of sources. This constitutes the primary step for providing an effective pre-design support tool for considering architecture modularity, facilitating the use of new technologies in the early design stage. The results showed that the interleaving concept allows for better flexibility in respecting the design constraints to improve the design of hybrid power systems. The analysis also highlights the current limitations and performance of the optimisation method and suggests new areas for future work.

A Novel Multi-Objective Energy Management Strategy for Fuel Cell Buses Quantifying Fuel Cell Degradation as Operating Cost

Fluctuation in a fuel cell’s output power affects its service life. This paper aims to explore the relationship between power output fluctuation and energy consumption and the cost of the fuel cell system. Hence, based on the actual driving information of vehicles, a novel multi-objective energy management strategy (EMS) for fuel cell buses (FCBs) that quantifies fuel cell life as operating cost is proposed. The actual driving data of FCBs on bus line 727 in Zhengzhou, China, were collected. Based on this, considering the degradation factors of the fuel cell and power battery hybrid energy system, a multi-objective cost framework was established to quantify the life degradation as consumption cost. Furthermore, the influence of different power change limits on the performance of the EMS was analysed based on real-world driving data and the typical Chinese city bus driving cycle, respectively. The simulation results show that the degradation cost of the fuel cell can be effectively reduced when the power change limit is 1 kW, and the simulation results obtained using real-world driving data are very different from those obtained using typical city bus driving cycles. This study provides a reference for the application of a vehicle energy management strategy in real-world scenarios as well as highlights its significance.

A refined sizing method of fuel cell-battery hybrid system for eVTOL aircraft

• Refined sizing method of the fuel cell and battery hybrid system for eVTOL aircraft. • The operating characteristics of each power source should be considered when sizing. • Optimal DoH varied depending on the battery charging time and production time point. • Priorities of technologies for FBHS-powered eVTOL depend on DoH and production year. Recently, a fuel cell-battery hybrid system (FBHS) has attracted considerable attention as a potential propulsion system for electric vertical take-off and landing (eVTOL) aircraft. For the conceptual design of FBHS-powered eVTOL aircraft, the FBHS sizing method requires parameterized weight estimation that reflects the power distribution ratio between the two power sources and the expected production time point. However, previous studies on FBHS sizing mainly focused on weight estimation based on actual product data. Thus, this study proposes a refined sizing method of FBHS for eVTOL aircraft that meets the requirements necessary at the conceptual design phase. The sizing method was parameterized at the component level, and the operating characteristics of the battery and fuel cell were reflected in the sizing. Each battery and fuel cell system sizing was performed, and the results showed that it is necessary to consider the operating characteristics of the battery or fuel cell when sizing rather than simply using constant specific energy or power. The FBHS-powered eVTOL aircraft sizing and sensitivity analysis were performed using the proposed method, considering the power distribution ratio between the two power sources. The results were derived by quantifying the technological development trends of each FBHS component and matching the expected production time to 2025 and 2035. In addition, the battery charging time required to fully charge the battery after performing all missions was calculated. The results indicated that the operational and manufacturing plan should be considered when designing the FBHS-powered eVTOL aircraft and prioritizing investments in technologies necessary for viable FBHS-powered eVTOL aircraft.

Development of a comprehensive transient fuel cell-battery hybrid system model and rule-based energy management strategy

ABSTRACT In the study, a comprehensive transient fuel cell-battery hybrid power system model is established to explore the output performances and dynamic responses of fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs). A fuel cell system sub-model, a one-dimensional transient Li-ion battery sub-model, two direct current/direct current (DC/DC) sub-models as well as a vehicle load sub-model are integrated. The coupled heat and mass transfer processes are considered inside fuel cell system and Li-ion battery. After rigorous model validation, the overall performances under several typical China standard vehicle road conditions are investigated, including power distribution between different power units, battery state of charge (SOC), battery charge/discharge rate, fuel cell operating duration, temperature, and other key parameters. During the 100 km h−1 acceleration processes under the preliminary rule-based energy management strategy (EMS), the accelerated speed is found to be the largest in the beginning, resulting in the fact that the discharge power for battery increases sharply. The shorter the acceleration time, the larger the maximum power demand for Li-ion battery. During the combined 1300 s high-speed operating conditions under the on-off switch EMS, the total operating duration of fuel cell system is calculated to be about 531 s, and the total output power is calculated to be 11,556 kJ. In comparison, the vehicle saves about 1044 kJ energy and increases the fuel cell operation duration by 333.7% under the power-following EMS. The present study provides important guidance in terms of dynamic simulation analysis and energy management strategy for FCEVs.

An energy management optimization approach for proton exchange membrane fuel cell-battery hybrid energy system for railway applications

An energy management optimization approach for proton exchange membrane fuel cell-battery hybrid energy system for railway applications