Declension Research Articles

Mu’înü’l-Mürîd’de /+DIn/ Şeklinin Hâl İşlevleri

The functions of case suffixes in current grammar teaching are quite limited. Generally, shape is taken as a basis and no evaluation is made according to the function of the suffix in the suffix sequence. In this study, the functions of the /+DIn/ form as a case suffix in the work called Mu'înü'l-Mürîd from the Khwarezmian Turkish period are discussed. Keywords: Mu’înü’l-Mürîd, suffix, function, +DIn, positional suffix.

Preferences in the use of overabundance: predictors of lexical bias in Estonian

Abstract This study of morphological overabundance focuses on the (non-)synonymy of parallel forms in Estonian illative case (‘into’) and the type of entrenchment behind it. We focus on the lexical level, testing whether the form preferred for a lexeme depends on semantic or morphophonological factors, or both. Using multifactorial regression analyses, we compare three corpus datasets: lexemes biased toward long forms, those biased toward short forms and lexemes with balanced form distribution. This is the first study to investigate realised overabundance in this way, and to include inflection class membership in the model, enabling us to test whether declension class subsumes the morphophonological factors found to affect form preference in previous studies. The analysis shows that cell token frequency and inflection class are significant predictors of form preference, while the lexical-semantic features included in the study do not affect formative choice, highlighting the role of cell entrenchment instead of formative entrenchment in guiding form use. In conclusion, the study highlights the important role of inflection class (morphophonology) in the general shaping of form usage patterns in parallel forms and the weak role of semantic factors on the lexical level.

ВАРЬИРОВАНИЕ ГЛАСНЫХ В ПАДЕЖНЫХ СУФФИКСАХ ЛИЧНЫХ МЕСТОИМЕНИЙ УДМУРТСКОГО ЯЗЫКА

The article discusses phonetic variants of the accusative, ablative, dative, instrumental personal pronouns’ case suffixes in dialects of the Udmurt language, which have different vocal vocalization (-e- ~ -y- / -i-). Variable suffixes in the ablative allow all personal pronouns, in the instrumental – 1pl and 2pl and 3ps, in the accusative and dative – 1pl and 2pl. Allomorphs can be used both in different dialects and within the dialect of the same village. The dative suffixes of 1 and 2 persons -y- ~ -e- are used only in the system of pronominal declension and historically go back to the final vowel of the pronominal basis of the singular number. The remaining case markers are present in the system of substantive and pronominative declension. Morphemes with -i-vocalization are secondary and are formed from -y-morphemes. However, it is not possible to explain the transition by positional changes. The roots of morphological transformations probably go back to the Proto-Permian and Proto-Udmurt periods. Morphemes on -e- are reflexes of the broad final vowel of the basis of personal pronouns 1sg, 2sg, subsequently -e-suffixes participated in the formation of personal pronouns 1pl, 2pl. The case indicators for -y- have a clear similarity to the suffixes of the substantive declension. The borrowing of this variant of morphemes into the system of personal pronouns was due to the pronominal semantics, which is close to the meaning of integral belonging. The material for the study was word forms selected from published dialect texts, articles, monographs, unpublished PhD dissertations, which are devoted to the description of various Udmurt dialects.

Грамматический статус синтетического показателя сравнения -ДАй в казахском языке

The paper defines the grammatical status of the Kazakh affix -DAy. It is an all-Turkic form grammaticalized relatively recently from a comparative postposition. In Turkic languages, postpositions have been identified as a recognized mechanism for the grammaticalization of novel case forms. Sometimes, the process of grammaticalization remains incomplete, with forms being produced that are often defined as case suffixes, derivational morphemes, or postposition affixes. The status of the affix -DAy/-DIy varies across Turkic languages and should be defined for each Turkic language individually. The turcological literature often debates its status, even within the same Turkic language. Our research focuses on analyzing the morphonological, morphosyntactic, and accentual characteristics of the -DAy form in the Kazakh language. The analysis based on different criteria has defined -DAy as a young equative-similative case morpheme. However, our experimental study has revealed variations in the accentual patterns of word forms with the affix -DAy in different Kazakh varieties, including the Standard Kazakh (the literary variant used in Kazakhstan) and those spoken in Mongolia and China. The variety spoken in Mongolia and China demonstrates a more pronounced grammaticalization of the affix -DAy as a case marker, compared to Standard Kazakh. None-theless, the distinctions are subtle and demand further exploration. Thus, the pace of grammaticalization processes differs even among local varieties of the same language. The use of experimental methods can provide clarity on the status of these entities.

Observations regarding extended causative verbal adverbials in the modern turkish language

In the grammatical structure of the Turkish language, the ablative case suffix can also in certain contexts express causation. Thus, causative adverbial phrases can be derived by adding the ablative case suffix to noun phrases formed during the process of nominalization by transforming the initial clauses with finite predicates, where the function of the correlative is marked by verbal nouns ending in -DIk / -(y)AcAk. Based on concrete (con)textual examples, this paper aims to analyze grammatical and semantic structures of causative adverbial phrases derived by adding the ablative case suffix to noun phrases formed during the process of nominalization by transforming the initial clauses with finite predicates. A contrastive analysis, which also analyzes semantically similar syntactic structures in the Bosnian language, is used to indicate similarities and differences within syntactic structures expressing causation in these two genetically and typologically different languages. The basic sources of the analysis are the following novels by Kemal Tahir: Esir Şehrin İnsanları, Esir Şehrin Mahpusu and Yol Ayrımı. Keywords: Turkish language, Bosnian language, causative adverbial phrases, ablative case suffix, initial noun clauses

Semantic agreement in Russian: Gender, declension, and morphological ineffability

In this paper, I argue that declension classes are not primitives (see Aronoff 1994; Alexiadou 2004; Kramer 2015; i.a.), but are decomposed into simpler features, one of which is gender (Harris 1991; Wiese 2004; Caha 2019). The argument is based on semantic gender agreement in Russian, where a grammatically masculine noun can trigger feminine agreement if its referent is female (Mučnik 1971; Pesetsky 2013). Semantic agreement is grammatical only in those forms where a regular nominal exponent is syncretic with an exponent of a declension class that includes feminine nouns. In other forms, conflicting masculine and feminine gender features lead to ineffability in morphology (cf. Schütze 2003; Asarina 2011; Coon and Keine 2020). Ineffability arises because the Subset Principle (Halle 1997) that holds between features of a vocabulary item and a terminal at the point of Vocabulary Insertion is violated later in the derivation. This is in turn possible if Vocabulary Insertion applying cyclically bottom-up (Bobaljik 2000) is interleaved with Lowering that alters structure below a triggering node (Embick and Noyer 2001). Finally, I show that Russian also has a number of cases where conflicting gender features in a noun phrase do not result in a realization failure (Iomdin 1980). The difference between these patterns is derived in a principled way and follows from the positions where conflicting features are introduced.

Realised overabundance in Estonian noun paradigms: A corpus study

In this paper we investigate the use of parallel forms, or morphological overabundance, in Estonian nouns, which are richly inflected in fourteen cases and two numbers. The complexity of the nominal inflection system derives from the multiplicity of declension classes, which allow for the availability of parallel forms in many morphological paradigm cells. Whereas previous studies of overabundance in nominal inflection have focussed on available overabundance in particular cells, this study focuses on the actual usage of overabundant forms, or ‘realised overabundance’, taking as a starting point those lexemes which are attested with two parallel forms in the corpus. Following the criteria proposed by Thornton (2019) , we investigate the canonicity of realised overabundance in Estonian, in terms of its extent across both lexemes and cells. In addition, frequency ratios of alternate variants and conditions on their usage are investigated by comparing lexemes in the most overabundant cells. Finally, we tackle the connections between morphological overabundance and syntactic argumenthood, exploring the hypothesis that parallel forms serve distinct functions. We find no contextual preference in terms of which of the two forms is used. In general, we find realised overabundance to be restricted and more canonical than potential overabundance.

NOUN STRESS IN UKRAINIAN LANGUAGE: DIACHRONY OF CODIFICATION (BASED ON "THE FIRST READER FOR PUBLIC SCHOOLS" BY A. KRUSHELNYTSKYI, O. POPOVYCH, B. LEPKYI (1918))

The article traces the peculiarities of noun stress in "The First Reader for Public Schools" (1918) by A. Krushelnytskyi, O. Popovych, and B. Lepkyi, which has not been the subject of linguistic research. This publication introduces the textbook by the mentioned authors into the academic discourse. The mentioned textbook was used in practice in primary and secondary Ukrainian-language education in western Ukraine during the time of Austria-Hungary. The norm for all levels of language at that time was the "Malorusko-German Dictionary" by E. Zhelekhivskyi and S. Nedielskyi (1886). Based on this lexicographical work, a phonetic orthography, known as "zhelekhivka," was formed, which the Ministry of Education recognized as official for Ukrainian education. The process of standardizing literary stress in the Ukrainian language is still ongoing today. Therefore, analyzing stresses in a school textbook published over a hundred years ago can help shed light on certain accentuation patterns that have evolved over time. Furthermore, the collected empirical material will enable researchers to substantiate the choice of one or another normative stress pattern. During the research process, it was discovered that the primary stress patterns in "The First Reader" align with contemporary normative stress patterns found in various paper and electronic dictionaries. The article also analyzed non-standard stress patterns in current usage. In the stress patterns of first-declension nouns, the authors of "The First Reader" systematically employ dactylic stress, which is a characteristic feature of the Ukrainian language. However, within the framework of the current accentuation norms, this dactylic stress is often considered incorrect in many cases. Some first-declension nouns exhibit stress patterns influenced by dialectal environments and the influence of the Polish and German languages. This is especially relevant when it comes to the stress patterns of borrowed words. In "The First Reader," one can also observe the form-distinguishing and content-distinguishing functions of stress, which differ from contemporary accentuation models. Among the second-declension nouns, stress patterns with an emphasized prefix were identified, which could partially enrich the normative basis of contemporary literary language. Additionally, a group of diminutive nouns with consistently stressed final syllables was identified. "The First Reader" does not feature deviant stress patterns among third and fourth declension nouns. The findings can be used in further scientific research, lexicographic practice, or in the educational process.

예니세이어파 명사의 격체계 특성

The subject of this study is the case category system of Ket language, the only existing language of the Yeniseian languages. After examining the usage of each case and case marker, we analyzed the singular/plural category, male/non-male category, animate/inanimate binary confrontation structure, which are important standards for the classification of cases of Ket language.
 Ket nouns are first classified into singular and plural, and if singular, they are classified into male/non-male categories, and if plural, they are classified into animate/inanimate categories. The three gender categories for nouns, which are male, female, and neutral, cannot be seen as a morphological difference in nominatives. Gender categories only play a dominant role in genetive case and dative, ablative, benefactive and adessive cases, which are made in basis of genetive case.
 It was found that it is reasonable to view the dative, ablative, benefactive, and adessive, which have binary structure according to male/non-male and animate/inanimate, as a declinable case. Locative, instrumental, abessive and prosecutive have no distinction between male/non-male, animate/inanimate, and they do not change according to the number and gender, so the case markers for these nouns are similar to case suffixes or propositions. As for the vocative, it has a male/female binary structure in singular, but they don’t have any confrontation structure in plural, which is very different from other standards.
 As such, the Ket language system does not have a clear system that appears in Indo-European languages due to the correlation between the confrontational structure of the class, the hierarchy of the class, and the postposition. So the Yeniseian language case system should be viewed as a binary structure, which has a declinable group(nominative, genetive, dative, ablative, benefactive, adessive, vocative) and indeclinable group(locative, instumental, prosecutive, abessive).

COMPARISON OF NAME CASE SUFFIXES IN TURKISH AND ENGLISH IN THE STORY OF THE MYSTERY OF THE ISLAND

In this study, titled Comparison of Noun Case Suffixes in Turkish and English in the Stories of the Mystery of the Island translated into Turkish, all the noun case suffixes used in the Turkish translated texts of the aforementioned stories were determined and analyzed one by one in Turkish and English in a comparative way. Among the stories written, simplified stories with Turkish translation titled "The mystery of the island" were emphasized and examined. Each of the aforementioned stories is divided into several chapters. There is a Turkish translation of the book next to each English page. Considering the volume of the work, s for the word page, followed by the line. One of the main purposes of this study is to reveal the structure of Turkish by examining the basics of noun case suffixes in English and Turkish, showing what they express and what they do not. As it is known, there are big differences between English and Turkish. In this review, noun case suffixes in Turkish and English are discussed in detail

An introduction of the principle of economy to the Kazakh grammar and pragmatics spoken in China

The purpose of this paper is to investigate the existence of economic principles inthe grammar and pragmatics of the Kazakh language in China. As the principle of economyoriginated in finance, later in linguistics, the principle of the linguistic economy appeared.People naturally omit some words or sounds in the process of communication, which does notaffect the result of their interaction, but saves them some energy and time, and these phenomenabelong to the principle of linguistic economy. This article focuses on the phenomenon ofomission in the Kazakh grammar and discourse, which is manifested in everyday speech. Thus,the results found in this study indicate that the economic principle of the Kazakh grammar canbe shown by the omission of predicate personal suffixes, plural suffixes and case suffixes. Onthe embodiment of economic principles in the Kazakh pragmatics in the integration of ellipticalsentences and syntactic structures. This study has a significant impact on the study of thepragmatics, informatics, intelligibility and the integration of the Kazakh language. This studyis useful for the study of pragmatics of the Kazakh language, for the study of informatization,for the study of intelligence and for teaching the Kazakh language, and it can provide someguidance for the learners of the Kazakh language.

How morphological is Hungarian vowel harmony?

There is a significant degree of phonological indeterminacy in front/back harmony in Hungarian (HVH), which manifests itself in lexical variation and/or vacillation. Harmonic behaviour in the zone of variation strongly supports the hypothesis that harmonic classes which individual roots belong to are organized as a paradigmatic system, very similar to inflectional classes. Such lexically determined declension classes are required independently of vowel harmony to account for various other lexically conditioned alternations in Hungarian, e.g., the alternations involving linking vowels in suffixes and yod in 3rd person possessives. A further evidence for the morphologisation of HVH is a paradigm uniformity effect, Harmonic Uniformity, which reduces harmonic uncertainty by making a stem’s harmonic behaviour predictable from that of its root. Thus, HVH is determined by morphology (paradigmatic classes and paradigm uniformity) in addition to (and sometimes overriding) phonology.

The ordering of obliques and adpositional elements

The order of verbs (V) and their object (O) has been of great interest among researchers. However, few studies have examined the order of obliques (X) with respect to V and O. Dryer (with Gensler) (2013) find the asymmetry between VO and OV languages in terms of the position of X: unlike VO languages, all three types of OV languages (XOV, OXV, and OVX) are widely attested. Hawkins (2008) tries to explain this asymmetry by the interaction of three patterns, (i) Verb & Object Adjacency, (ii) Object & X on Same Side of Verb, and (iii) Object before X. Although his analysis is successful in explaining the word order data in the world’s languages, there are still some problems. In this paper, we argue that we can predict the possible word orders using only Hawkins’s (2004, 2008) Minimize Domains (MiD). We also argue that compared to the prepositional counterparts, postpositions, postpositional clitics, and case suffixes are more likely to be connected to their noun (phrase) complement phonologically and morpho-syntactically. In other words, the juncture between noun and adposition/clitic/affix in head-final languages is tighter than that in head-initial languages. Assuming that adjuncts (X) consist of noun and adposition/clitic/affix, the domain of constituent recognition is different in the possible word orders of O, X and V. We assume that postpositions/postpositional clitics/suffixes need only half of a word (^ = 0.5) for domain recognition because they are closely attached to the adjacent noun (phrase). We conclude that any ordering of O, X and V is possible if the domain size is less than 4. This analysis has advantages over Hawkins’s (2008) analysis because it is simpler and does not need to assume Hawkins’s principle of Argument Precedence.

Semantic features of discursive markers in English and Azerbaijani languages

The paper deals with the contrastive study of the semantic features of the discourse markers in the English and Azerbaijani fictional texts. It discusses various views of the researchers (D. Blakemore, T. Van Dijk, M. Hansen, Y. Maschler, D. Schiffrin, E. Chiglincheva, M. Kamenski) who extensively studied the semantic status of the discourse markers in English. The instances of the use of the discourse markers have strong correlation with communicative situation and the type of discourse. Defining the type of discourse clarifies other issues related to communicative situation. Discourse markers are key connecting devices between the parts of discourse motivated by the intention of the sender (author). Even the most complicated ideas can be shaped in discourse either explicitly or implicitly using discourse markers. Discourse markers are also quite common in Azerbaijani like in all other languages and they play very important role in the distribution of information in discourse. The results of our analysis suggests that the discourse markers in the languages under analysis have mostly common semantic features. The difference is that in contrast to English some discourse markers with the semantics of modality in Azerbaijani are formulated through the transformation of sentence and also the case suffixes can function as discourse markers in this language.

A Study on Particles used with Adverbs in Japanese

Japanese is a language among Transeurasian languages embedding a substantial number of similarities to Turkish; however, there appear many differences as deeper analyses are carried out. It bears outstanding features both in terms of the differences in the writing system and in terms of the structural differences of the elements used in sentences. As a matter of fact, from a grammatical point of view, there are some cases where some terms in Turkish do not exactly overlap their Japanese counterparts.
 The number of Japanese linguists who argue that the Turkish equivalent of the words called joshi (particle), which is one of the parts of speech in Japanese, does not exactly correspond to the part of speech, which is the ilgeç (edat), is increasing rapidly. There are also researchers categorizing this part of speech as a noun case suffix instead of ilgeç (edat) because it is affixed to nouns in Turkish. From this perspective, in order to remain in the realm of Japanese studies, to refer to the grammatical structure which is the subject of this study, the term ilgeç (edat) (particle) is employed in the present research.
 The presence of particles which are frequently used in sentences patterned with adverbs「adverb + particle(s)」shows that they are part of a formally different formation in the form of adverbs in Japanese. In this research, the forms of adverbs in this structure existing in sentences are discussed by analyzing the reading texts and sample sentences in various intermediate level grammar books. The aim of the study is to determine, in general terms, which of the particles of this type are used with adverbs and which cannot be used with adverbs in Japanese. Thanks to the light shed by the findings obtained, it was understood that the particles「と(to)」and「に(ni)」were the particles most frequently used as a pattern with the adverbs in Japanese. Moreover, the other particles used with adverbs are shown in tables.

DOUBLE CASE MARKING IN THE PERMIAN LANGUAGES

The article is devoted to the study of word forms containing two or more different case suffixes. The types of double case marking have been identified, the area of their distribution has been clarified. It is established that the majority of typologically distinguished types of double case marking are represented in the Permian languages and their dialects: 1) elliptical (Simple headless adnominal) is represented in all Permian languages, it is widely used in the Udmurt language; 2) derivational takes place in the Komi languages during the formation of separate case forms of personal pronouns of the 1st and 2nd person plural; 3) the addition of locative suffixes (Case stacking) was characteristic of the early stages of the Permian languages. A typical example is the indicators of approximative-locative cases of the Komi languages, formed as a result of merging of the approximative suffix and suffixes of other locative cases, cf. керка-лань ‘towards the house’, керка-ланьысь 'from the house’, керка-ланьын 'near the house', etc.; 4) duplication of the vertex case with a nominal dependent (Headed adnominal with a case-marked head) is observed only with inversion and parcellation; 5) pleonastic (a combination of two case suffixes duplicating the same meaning). The duplication of the morphological expression of the case is fixed (in the Komi-Zyryan language, the suffixes of the genitive and the dative of nouns are added to the forms of the genitive and the dative of personal and intensifying personal pronouns of the 1st and 2nd person singular) and the double expression of the semantic-syntactic function of the case (in the Komi-Zyryan language, the suffixes of the elative and the comparative can be used simultaneously when expressing the comparative meaning). The properties of case suffixes in various types of double case marking and the possibility of their further development are noted. The empirical basis for the study was the original texts in the Komi-Zyryan, Komi-Permian and Udmurt languages from printed sources and electronic corpora.

Interface Legibility and Nominal Classification: A Nanosyntactic Account of Kipsigis Singulatives

Under a superset-based approach to spellout (Caha 2009; Starke 2009), a vocabulary item characterizes a set of PF-legible syntactic objects. The consequence is a dynamic, configurational and vocabulary-driven notion of a feature’s (un)interpretability at PF, that gives rise to the possibility of spellout-driven movement (Starke 2018). In this case study, I employ this to reinterpret Kouneli’s (2021) analysis of the tripartite number-based system of nominal classification found in Kipsigis. While Kouneli’s analysis makes use of uninterpretable classificatory features to derive the classes, I derive the classes from the restrictions on PF-legibility imposed the vocabulary items themselves, thus providing an explanatory account of the PF-legibility of particular number properties from a general theory of PF interpretation. This account also solves the issue raised by Alexiadou & Müller (2008) who show that introducing declension class feature in the syntax or at PF are both problematic for the Y-model. Since the proposal I argue for here disbands such features in favor of a configurational analysis of noun class, it shows the potential for resolving a serious conceptual issue.

Arapçadaki İ‘râb Harekeleri ile Türkçedeki Hâl Ekleri Karşılaştırması: Benzerlikler ve Farklılıklar

This study will discuss the differences and similarities between the iʿrāb ḥarakas (vowels) in Arabic and the case suffixes that can be seen as their equivalent in the Turkish language. This study aims to point out the role of suffixes in determining the meaning, as well as reveal that case suffixes basically point to the elements of the sentence, such as iʿrāb ḥarakas. At the beginning of the research, firstly, Arabic and Turkish language families will be mentioned. In the first part, information will be given about the essential elements and auxiliary elements of the sentence in Turkish, and then their possible equivalents in Arabic -with the help of Ottoman Turkish- will be mentioned. In the second part, by giving general information about case suffixes, it will be said which element of the sentence they refer to. Finally, in light of the information given, the similarities and differences of the ḥarakas and suffixes will be revealed. In this research, in which qualitative research methods will be used, the similarities and differences between the ḥarakas and the suffixes will be explained with examples, and a better understanding will be tried to provide. As a result of this research, it has been understood that although there are many differences between iʿrāb ḥarakas and suffixes due to the structure of the language, they basically perform the same function. Just as in Arabic, the fatḥa (short vowel /a/) is known as a ḥarakah pointing to the direct patient; it has been understood that the suffix (-ı/-i), which is one of the noun cases in Turkish, points to the direct object. Because in Ottoman Turkish, the direct object was named maf`ūl bih ṣarīḥ. In addition, it has been determined that the subjects and indefinite objects in Turkish always come in a nominative case and do not take any other case suffix. It has been understood that there are differences between i‘râb ḥarakas and case suffixes, as well as similar aspects. While case suffixes in Turkish are used to add other meanings to the word in addition to pointing out the elements of the sentence, such a situation has not been found in Arabic. In addition to these, it has been understood that the most similar sign of iʿrāb to the suffixes is iʿrāb with ḥaraka; the subjects of real/visible declension (al-iʿrāb al-maḥallī), imaginary/hidden declension (al-iʿrāb al-taqdirī), and declension with a letter (al-iʿrāb bi al-ḥurūf) could not be found in Turkey Turkish. Although in Turkey Turkish there is no dual forms, case suffixes are used in their plurals, just like in their singulars. Another difference between them stems from the fact that Turkish is an agglutinative language. A noun in a nominative form can take suffixes such as plural suffixes and possessive suffixes, even if it does not take any other suffixes. Another significant difference that can be detected is related to the reduction of ḥarakas in speech. Because while the reduction of the last ḥaraka in the sentence does not harm the Arabic-speaking person's fluency, it has been seen that the reduction of suffixes in Turkish harms the fluency of the language.

The morpho-phonology of accusative and genitive case in Barguzin Buryat

In this paper, I explore an aspect of the morpho-phonology of accusative and genitive case in the Barguzin dialect of Buryat. While most case suffixes in this language are straightforward, accusative and genitive case display considerable complexity. I argue that these cases are subject to a particular phonological alignment constraint, which motivates the inclusion of an epenthetic morpheme in some cirumstances. I go on to relate this analysis to several other details about these cases, several of which remain to be explained in future work.

Yabancılara Türkçe Öğretiminde Bir Materyal Geliştirme Örneği: Döndür-Geç

Implementation of plans, programs and curricula in foreign language teaching is possible with methods and techniques. Some physical supplementary teaching materials such as word cards, toys, color cards, etc. have been developed for these methods and techniques. Grammar teaching is an area that students find boring in general. A supplementary course material named Dönder-Geç has been prepared in order to enrich the teaching and keep the student's interest alive. This tool consists of three interlocking circles. There are 150 verb conjugations in five simple tenses with five different case suffixes and six personal pronouns. There are 30 conjugations for each case suffix and it is a tool with 25 different sentence possibilities in total, with five case suffixes appearing in front of each personal pronoun. How this tool is made and how to use it is discussed in the study and comments are made. Key words: Turkish as Foreign language, teaching Turkish to foreigners, foreign language teaching material.