Capsule Size Research Articles

Retrospective use of integrative taxonomy in classical biological control: The unintentional introduction of the weevil Rhinusa dieckmanni to North America

A seed-feeding weevil introduced to North America (NA) as a biological control agent of the invasive toadflax Linaria dalmatica (L.) Mill., identified then as Gymnetron antirrhini “Dalmatian host race” and subsequently confirmed as established, was revealed through our study to be a separate species, i.e., Rhinusa dieckmanni (Behne) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae). This weevil species was presumed to be endemic in its native range, with a distribution restricted to Mount Rila in southwestern Bulgaria. We conducted a comprehensive study of seed-feeding weevils associated with L. dalmatica, L. dalmatica ssp. macedonica (Griseb.) D.A. Sutton, L. genistifolia (L.) Mill., and L. grandiflora Desf. across a broad geographic area of their native range. Those results revealed that all four host plants were used by R. dieckmanni and thus the native geographic range of the species is wider than expected, encompassing the Balkans and the Anatolian Plateau. Our observations suggest that phenotypes of this weevil are highly variable and dependent on the seed capsule size of the Linaria host population. The haplotype network based on mitochondrial COII, 16S genes, and nuclear EF 1-α gene genealogy confirmed the conspecific nature of geographically distant weevil populations, that is, R. dieckmanni phenotypes utilizing L. genistifolia, L. dalmatica, and L. grandiflora for larval development. Specimens collected from L. dalmatica in the northwestern USA shared the same haplotypes as samples from L. dalmatica ssp. macedonica in southwestern North Macedonia, supporting the known introduction history of the North American population. Females from these populations have relatively short rostrums, which may limit their reproductive success on North American invasive L. dalmatica with larger seed capsules.

Pharmaceutical characterization of probucol bile acid-lithocholic acid nanoparticles to prevent chronic hearing related and similarcellular oxidative stress pathologies.

Background: Sensorineural hearing loss has been associated with oxidative stress. However, an antioxidant that passes effectively through the ear remains elusive. Method: Probucol (PB)-based nanoparticles were formed using a spray-drying encapsulation technique, characterized and tested in vitro. Results: Uniform, spherical nanoparticles were produced. The addition of lithocholic acid to PB formulations did not affect drug content or production yield, but it did modify capsule size, surface tension, electrokinetic stability and drug release. Cell viability, bioenergetics and inflammatory profiles were improved when auditory cells were exposed to PB-based nanoparticles, which showed antioxidant properties (p<0.05). Conclusion: PB-based nanoparticles can potentially protect the auditory cell line from oxidative stress and could be used in future in vivo studies as a potential new therapeutic agent for sensorineural hearing loss.

Intelligent Wireless Capsule Endoscopy for the Diagnosis of Gastrointestinal Diseases.

Through a wireless capsule endoscope (WCE) fitted with a miniature camera (about an inch), this study aims to examine the role of wireless capsule endoscopy (WCE) in the diagnosis, monitoring, and evaluation of GI (gastrointestinal) disorders. In a wearable belt recorder, a capsule travels through the digestive tract and takes pictures. It attempts to find tiny components that can be used to enhance the WCE. To accomplish this, we followed the steps below: Researching current capsule endoscopy through databases, designing and simulating the device using computers, implanting the system and finding tiny components compatible with capsule size, testing the system and eliminating noise and other problems, and analyzing the results. In the present study, it was shown that a spherical WCE shaper and a smaller WCE with a size of 13.5 diameter, a high resolution, and a high frame rate (8-32 fps) could help patients with pains due to the traditional capsules and provide more accurate pictures as well as prolong the battery life. In addition, the capsule can also be used to reconstruct 3D images. Simulation experiments showed that spherical endoscopic devices are more advantageous than commercial capsule-shaped endoscopic devices for wireless applications. We found that the sphere's velocity through the fluid was greater than the capsule's.

Alginate Core-Shell Capsules Production through Coextrusion Methods: Principles and Technologies.

This paper provides an overview of coextrusion methods for encapsulation. Encapsulation involves the coating or entrapment of a core material such as food ingredients, enzymes, cells, or bioactives. Encapsulation can help compounds add to other matrices, stabilize compounds during storage, or enable controlled delivery. This review explores the principal l coextrusion methods available that can be used to produce core-shell capsules through the use of coaxial nozzles. Four methods for encapsulation by coextrusion are examined in detail, including dripping, jet cutting, centrifugal, and electrohydrodynamic systems. The targeted capsule size determines the appropriate parameters for each method. Coextrusion technology is a promising encapsulation technique able to generate core-shell capsules in a controlled manner, which can be applied to cosmetic, food, pharmaceutical, agriculture, and textile industries. Coextrusion is an excellent way to preserve active molecules and present a significant economic interest.

Antimalarials and amphotericin B interact synergistically and are new options to treat cryptococcosis

Cryptococcus gattii and Cryptococcus neoformans are the main etiological agents of cryptococcosis, an invasive mycosis treated with amphotericin B, 5-fluorocytosine, and fluconazole. This limited arsenal is toxic and is associated with antifungal resistance. Cryptococcosis and malaria pathogens are eukaryotic organisms that have a high incidence in Sub-Saharan Africa. The antimalarials (ATMs) halofantrine (HAL) and amodiaquine (AQ) block Plasmodium heme polymerase, and artesunate (ART) induces oxidative stress. Considering that Cryptococcus spp. is susceptible to reactive oxygen species and that iron is essential for metabolism, the repurposing of ATMs for treating cryptococcosis was tested. ATMs reduced fungal growth, induced oxidative and nitrosative stresses, and altered ergosterol content, melanin production, and polysaccharide capsule size in C. neoformans and C. gattii, revealing a dynamic effect on fungal physiology. A comprehensive chemical-genetic analysis using two mutant libraries demonstrated that the deletion of genes involved in synthesizing components of the plasma membrane and cell wall, and oxidative stress responses are essential for fungal susceptibility to ATMs. Interestingly, the amphotericin B (AMB) fungicidal concentrations were ∼10 times lower when combined with ATMs, demonstrating a synergistic interaction. Further, the combinations showed reduced toxicity to murine macrophages. Finally, HAL+AMB and AQ+AMB efficiently reduced lethality and fungal burden in the lungs and brain in murine cryptococcosis. These findings provide perspectives for further studies with ATMs against cryptococcosis and other fungal infections.

Pore-scale numerical investigation on the thermal storage properties of packed-bed systems with phase change material microcapsules

Phase change material (PCM) microcapsules are gaining increasing attention because it can overcome the shortage of PCM macrocapsules and increase the heat transfer area, while the pore-scale thermal performance of the PCM microcapsule packed-bed systems, as well as the influence of packing methods and microcapsule sizes on thermal storage, is still poorly understood. This paper introduces various spherical PCM microcapsule pack models, including single-layered, diameter-changed two-layered, and three-layered packing models, to investigate the charging process at pore scale. The indices of thermal storage properties such as charging time, temperature distribution, phase change fraction, pressure drop and thermocline degradation are studied with the finite element method. In the single-layered thermal storage system, the results show that the charging process can be improved by reducing the capsule size and using cross-packing methods. When the capsule size is reduced from 2 to 0.5 mm with cross packing, the charging time can be shortened by 72.97%, but remarkable pressure drop is created. The results indicate that the overall thermal storage performance of multi-layered packed-bed systems is better than that of single-layered packed-bed systems. The charging time of the diameter-changed two-layered and three-layered thermal storage systems can be reduced up to 16.21% and 24.32%, respectively, compared to the single-layered in-line pack with a d = 2 mm. The filling sequence plays a key role in multi-layered thermal systems. A packed-bed system with a diameter decreasing along the heat transfer fluid (HTF) flow direction has a better capacity to reduce thermocline degradation than other packed-bed systems.

Integrative taxonomy in the genus Rhabdias stiles et Hassall, 1905 from anuran in Brazil, description of two new species and phylogenetic analyses.

About 20 valid species of the genus Rhabdias are known in the Neotropical region. The present study aimed to describe two new species of Rhabdias parasitizing the lungs of Leptodactylus macrosternum and Leptodactylus podicipinus from Brazil. Distinctive characteristics between these species are numerous and based on body size, size of the buccal capsule, shape and size of the oesophagus, and position of the vulva. Molecular data based on ribosomal genes 28S and ITS region and mitochondrial COI of the two species are presented. Molecular analysis and comparison of the partial mitochondrial COI sequence of Rhabdias matogrossensis n. sp. and Rhabdias guaianensis n. sp. revealed a genetic divergence between these new species and the sequences of Rhabdias spp. previously deposited in GenBank. In the phylogenetic analysis, R. matogrossensis n. sp. was grouped with R. breviensis species complex, and R. guaianensis n. sp. was grouped as a sister group of R. cf. stenochepala. This study contributes to improving the diversity of known species of Rhabdias described in Brazilian anurans.

An Ingestible Pill With CMOS Fluorescence Sensor Array, Bi-Directional Wireless Interface and Packaged Optics for in-Vivo Bio-Molecular Sensing.

The article presents for the first time a pill-based ingestible electronics with CMOS integrated multiplexed fluorescence bio-molecular sensor arrays, bi-directional wireless communication and packaged optics in a FDA-approved capsule for in-vivo bio-molecular sensing. The silicon chip integrates both the sensor array, and the ultra-low-power (ULP) wireless system that allows offloading sensor computing to an external base station that can reconfigure the sensor measurement time, and its dynamic range, allowing optimized high sensitivity measurement under low power consumption. The integrated receiver achieves -59 dBm receiver sensitivity dissipating 121 µW of power. The integrated transmitter operates in a dual mode FSK/OOK delivering -15 dBm of power. The 15-pixel fluorescence sensor array follows an electronic-optic co-design methodology and integrates the nano-optical filters with integrated sub-wavelength metal layers that achieves high extinction ratio (39 dB), thereby eliminating the need for bulky external optical filters. The chip integrates photo-detection circuitry and on-chip 10-bit digitation, and achieves measured sensitivity of 1.6 attomoles of fluorescence labels on surface, and between 100 pM to 1 nM of target DNA detection limit per pixel. The complete package includes a CMOS fluorescent sensor chip with integrated filter, a prototyped UV LED and optical waveguide, functionalized bioslip, off-chip power management and Tx/Rx antenna that fits in a standard FDA approved capsule size 000.

In vivo assessment of differences in fungal cell density in cerebral cryptococcomas of mice infected with Cryptococcus neoformans or Cryptococcus gattii

In cerebral cryptococcomas caused by Cryptococcus neoformans or Cryptococcus gattii, the density of fungal cells within lesions can contribute to the overall brain fungal burden. In cultures, cell density is inversely related to the size of the cryptococcal capsule, a dynamic polysaccharide layer surrounding the cell. Methods to investigate cell density or related capsule size within fungal lesions of a living host are currently unavailable, precluding in vivo studies on longitudinal changes. Here, we assessed whether intravital microscopy and quantitative magnetic resonance imaging techniques (diffusion MRI and MR relaxometry) would enable non-invasive investigation of fungal cell density in cerebral cryptococcomas in mice. We compared lesions caused by type strains C. neoformans H99 and C. gattii R265 and evaluated potential relations between observed imaging properties, fungal cell density, total cell and capsule size. The observed inverse correlation between apparent diffusion coefficient and cell density permitted longitudinal investigation of cell density changes. Using these imaging methods, we were able to study the multicellular organization and cell density within brain cryptococcomas in the intact host environment of living mice. Since the MRI techniques are also clinically available, the same approach could be used to assess fungal cell density in brain lesions of patients.

Current and emerging medications for the management of obesity in adults.

Current and emerging medications for the management of obesity in adults.

A 3D pore-scale model for macro-encapsulated phase change material-metal foam hybrid energy storage system

A 3D pore-scale model is presented to predict the energy storage characteristics of a macro-encapsulated phase change material (PCM)-metal foam hybrid energy storage system. A single capsule with metallic shell filled with PCM-metal foam composite is considered. The energy transfer from a heat transfer fluid (HTF) flowing over the capsule, the evolution of temperature, and the melting of PCM in the metal foam pores within the capsule are simulated using the model. The model resolves the geometry of the individual pores in the metal foam and thus captures the local heat transfer between the metal foam and PCM, and the movement of PCM solid-liquid interface during melting inside each pore. Heat transfer from the HTF to the metal shell, metal foam, and PCM, and the resulting melting and energy storage characteristics are predicted by using the model. The effects of important geometrical parameters such as capsule size, capsule shell thickness, pore size distribution and porosity of the foam are studied. As a significant fraction of energy storage is in the form of sensible energy, the total energy storage with the variation of these parameters are quantitatively compared. For the range of parameters considered in the study, it is found that the increase in foam porosity from 50 % to 70 % increases the total energy storage by 5.41 % while increasing the average pore radius from 0.5 mm to 0.9 mm keeping the porosity 60 %, increases the total energy storage by only 1.54 %. Change in capsule inner diameter from 7 to 11 mm increases the total energy storage by 211.99 % although the energy stored per unit volume is reduced by 7.55 %. Similar effect is also observed for increase in shell thickness from 0.5 to 1.5 mm.

Synergistic antifungal interaction of N-(butylcarbamothioyl) benzamide and amphotericin B against Cryptococcus neoformans.

Cryptococcus neoformans is one of the leading causes of invasive fungal infections worldwide. Cryptococcal meningoencephalitis is the main challenge of antifungal therapy due to high morbidity and mortality rates, especially in low- and middle-income countries. This can be partly attributed to the lack of specific diagnosis difficulty accessing treatment, antifungal resistance and antifungal toxicity. In the present study, the effect of the synthetic thiourea derivative N-(butylcarbamothioyl) benzamide (BTU-01), alone and combined with amphotericin B (AmB), was evaluated in planktonic and sessile (biofilm) cells of C. neoformans. BTU-01 alone exhibited a fungistatic activity with minimal inhibitory concentrations (MICs) ranging from 31.25 to 62.5 μg/mL for planktonic cells; and sessile MICs ranging from 125.0 to 1000.0 μg/mL. BTU-01 caused a concentration-dependent inhibitory activity on cryptococcal urease and did not interfere with plasma membrane fluidity. Molecular docking was performed on Canavalia ensiformis urease, and BTU-01 showed relevant interactions with the enzyme. The combination of BTU-01 and AmB exhibited synergistic fungicidal activity against planktonic and sessile cells of C. neoformans. Microscopic analysis of C. neoformans treated with BTU-01, alone or combined with AmB, revealed a reduction in cell and capsule sizes, changes in the morphology of planktonic cells; a significant decrease in the number of cells within the biofilm; and absence of exopolymeric matrix surrounding the sessile cells. Neither hemolytic activity nor cytotoxicity to mammalian cells was detected for BTU-01, alone or combined with AmB, at concentrations that exhibited antifungal activity. BTU-01 also displayed drug-likeness properties. These results indicate the potential of BTU-01, for the development of new strategies for controlling C. neoformans infections.

Reaching a burning plasma and ignition using smaller capsules/Hohlraums, higher radiation temperatures, and thicker ablator/ice on the national ignition facility

In indirect-drive implosions, the final core hot spot energy and pressure and, hence, neutron yield attainable in 1D increase with increasing laser peak power and, hence, radiation drive temperature at the fixed capsule and Hohlraum size. We present simple analytic scalings validated by 1D simulations that quantify the improvement in performance and use this to explain existing data and simulation trends. Extrapolating to the 500 TW National Ignition Facility peak power limit in a low gas-fill 5.4 mm diameter Hohlraum based on existing high adiabat implosion data at 400 TW, 1.3 MJ and 1 × 1016 yield, we find that a 2–3 × 1017 yield (0.5–0.7 MJ) is plausible using only 1.8 MJ of laser energy. Based on existing data varying deuterium–tritium (DT) fuel thickness and dopant areal density, further improvements should be possible by increasing DT fuel areal density, and hence confinement time and yield amplification.

Optimization design and performance investigation on the cascaded packed-bed thermal energy storage system with spherical capsules

Most of the previous researches on the cascaded packed-bed latent heat storage (CPTES) system are the thermal performance optimization based on numerical calculation. Experimental studies are few and mainly focus on single design parameter at low-temperature conditions. Lack of the detailed temperature - flow field experimental data and optimization scheme for the CPTES system. In this paper, an optimized two-layered filling structure of packed-bed heat storage system (OT-PTES) was proposed, which considers melting temperature of phase change material (PCM), capsule diameter, and filling volume ratio. The heat transfer process of PCM capsule and heat transfer fluid (HTF) during charging/discharging process were studied in detail by experiments. Under consistent working conditions, the average charging/discharging rate, total heat capacity, overall efficiency, and exergy efficiency was evaluated. And the influences of HTF inlet flow and the volume filling ratio of two-layered on thermal performance were analyzed. Finally, the concentric diffusion model was used to simulate the system to further optimize its hierarchical structure. The results are concluded as follows: (1) The temperature difference between PCM capsule and HTF at the interface changes continuously, and there is also an obvious temperature gradient in the radial direction of HTF, which improves the heat transfer efficiency. (2) Through experiments, the packed-bed with single large/small size PCM capsules are compared with the OT-PTES system. The overall efficiency of the latter is 74.2%, increased by 3.38% and 8.28%, and the exergy efficiency is 62.7%, increased by 7.5% and 52%. It is proved that the OT-PTES system has better charging/discharging performance. (3) When the volume filling rate = 1/2, the system has the best thermal performance (75.04%) and exergy efficiency (67.1%). (4) The numerical simulation results show that the overall performance of the packed-bed is optimal when the capsule size composition is 20–30 mm and the temperature difference of PCMs melting point is 60 ℃. In summary, OT-PTES is an optimized system with better heat storage performance. This study can provide experimental data support for the optimal design of the PLTES system and useful guidance for industrial applications.

ARBUSCULAR MYCORRHIZAL FUNGI INFLUENCE ON GROWTH OF CREOLE MAIZE AND LARVAL DEVELOPMENT OF Spodoptera frugiperda (Lepidoptera:Noctuidae)

&lt;p&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Background&lt;/strong&gt;: The fall armyworm &lt;em&gt;Spodoptera frugiperda &lt;/em&gt;is one of the main pests of maize in Mexico. Its control and management have been performed mainly with pesticides. One of the alternatives is to incorporate arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) because of the benefits they provide to plants improving their growth and promoting their defense system against this pest. &lt;strong&gt;Objective&lt;/strong&gt;: Evaluate the effect of AMF in creole maize growth in reducing leaf damage and development of &lt;em&gt;Spodoptera frugiperda &lt;/em&gt;larvae&lt;em&gt;. &lt;/em&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Methodology&lt;/strong&gt;: In greenhouse conditions, creole maize plants were inoculated with 80 spores of &lt;em&gt;Funneliformis mosseae&lt;/em&gt;, &lt;em&gt;Rhizophagus intraradices &lt;/em&gt;and without AMF. Height and stem diameter were determined in mycorrhized plants at 15, 30, and 45 days after plant inoculation. After 45 days, plants were infested with three third-instar larvae of &lt;em&gt;S. frugiperda&lt;/em&gt; and left to feed for 12 days; fresh weight and cephalic capsule width and size were measured. Once larvae were removed, leaf damage was determined in plants by means of a visual scale, leaf area and mycorrhizal colonization. &lt;strong&gt;Results&lt;/strong&gt;: Root colonization of maize plants by AMF had a significant effect (Tukey’s &lt;em&gt;p &lt;/em&gt;≤ 0.05) in creole maize growth expressed in plant height at 30 days and at 45 days in stem diameter only in plants inoculated with &lt;em&gt;F. mosseae &lt;/em&gt;(Tukey’s &lt;em&gt;p &lt;/em&gt;≤ 0.05). Leaf damage by the fall armyworm was similar between inoculated and uninoculated with AMF. Larvae that consumed plant leaves inoculated with &lt;em&gt;R. intraradices &lt;/em&gt;showed greater fresh weight compared to those inoculated with &lt;em&gt;F. mosseae&lt;/em&gt;. Moreover, width of the cephalic capsule and size were similar between larvae fed with plants inoculated with and without AMF. &lt;strong&gt;Implications&lt;/strong&gt;: The results provide new perspectives and considerations to incorporate AMF in management of fall armyworm in creole maize. &lt;strong&gt;Conclusion&lt;/strong&gt;: These results show that AMF partially promote plant growth of creole maize; leaf damage is similar between plants with and without AMF. Insect weight increased depending on AMF species, which influenced their development.&lt;/p&gt;

Engineering 3D micro-compartments for highly efficient and scale-independent expansion of human pluripotent stem cells in bioreactors

Human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs) have emerged as the most promising cellular source for cell therapies. To overcome the scale-up limitations of classical 2D culture systems, suspension cultures have been developed to meet the need for large-scale culture in regenerative medicine. Despite constant improvements, current protocols that use microcarriers or generate cell aggregates only achieve moderate amplification performance. Here, guided by reports showing that hPSCs can self-organize in vitro into cysts reminiscent of the epiblast stage in embryo development, we developed a physio-mimetic approach for hPSC culture. We engineered stem cell niche microenvironments inside microfluidics-assisted core-shell microcapsules. We demonstrate that lumenized three-dimensional colonies significantly improve viability and expansion rates while maintaining pluripotency compared to standard hPSC culture platforms such as 2D cultures, microcarriers, and aggregates. By further tuning capsule size and culture conditions, we scale up this method to industrial-scale stirred tank bioreactors and achieve an unprecedented hPSC amplification rate of 277-fold in 6.5 days. In brief, our findings indicate that our 3D culture system offers a suitable strategy both for basic stem cell biology experiments and for clinical applications.

Canola meal phenolic compounds electrosprayed into capsules to increase the oxidative stability of canola oil

Nano-encapsulation is a developing area of study across several fields, including the food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic sectors. In this study, nanocapsules containing polyphenols were made from canola meal by electrospraying, and it was determined how the capsules' walls affected their shape, encapsulation efficiency, ζ-potential, and particle size. Furthermore, the impact of nanocapsules on canola oil was examined using the TBA index, oxidative stability, and iodine value. Our findings demonstrated that spherical nanoparticles were produced using electrospraying, and that the amount of wall materials used to create them had an impact on their size. Maltodextrin/β-cyclodextrin at a ratio of 1:1 resulted in the smallest capsule sizes, with an encapsulation efficiency of 68% and an 80% release over 40 days at ambient temperature. The ζ-potential of each particle was negative. With a PDI of 0.074–0.650 and a mean size of 232.3–659.8 nm, the population of electrosprayed nanoparticles was found to be heterogeneous. By increasing nanocapsules of polyphenols to the canola oil, the oil stability and oil quality were increased. Our results showed that 800 ppm of polyphenols can improve the oil stability similarly to TBHQ, and therefore it is possible to use canola meal polyphenols as natural antioxidants in the oil industry.Graphical

Another new species of Glossocephalus (Crustacea: Amphipoda: Hyperiidea: Oxycephalidae) from the Monterey Bay region, California, USA

A new species of Glossocephalus, G. aurantium sp. nov., is described based on two female specimens collected from the Monterey Canyon, California, eastern Pacific Ocean. It was found associated with an undescribed lobate ctenophore. Glossocephalus aurantium is readily distinguished from its congeners by the large crescent-shaped bulbous eye fields relative to the size of the head capsule. The pereopod morphology is most similar to G. rebecae, recently described from the same general region by Zeidler and Browne (2015), but that species is readily distinguished by it's relatively narrow crescent-shaped eye fields. Apart from it's prominent bulbous eye structures, G. aurantium is distinguished from G. milneedwardsi by the morphology of the gnathopods (not spoon-shaped). In addition, pereopods 5 and 6 are slender (not paddle-like) and the head capsule is relatively larger with a sharp rostrum (not rounded).

Perils of drifting encapsulated embryos of the periwinkle Littorina scutulata from failures at launch and unscheduled landings

Unusually for benthic animals, mothers in many species of littorinid snails release drifting egg capsules that experience hazards of either the plankton or seafloor. At a site sheltered from large waves, numerous egg capsules of Littorina scutulata remained in high intertidal pools near mothers, and the embryos died. Mortality was also high for embryos in capsules caught in high intertidal clumps of algae. Capsules in shallow water were at early cleavage stages, indicating exposure to intertidal predators only for the hours of early development. In the laboratory, small intertidal pagurid hermit crabs and grapsid crabs ate capsules, and barnacles captured capsules, though with ingestion uncertain. An anemone and a mussel were not hazards. Embryos in capsules exposed to microbial and physical hazards on submerged sediments suffered little mortality, in contrast to previously observed high mortality at the same site for embryos of an echinoid. Predation rates could not be estimated for any location, but other hazards were less on low intertidal and subtidal sediments than in the high intertidal zone. The number of embryos per capsule and capsule sizes varied within a mother’s spawn, between spawns of mothers of similar size, and with maternal condition. Packaging several embryos in a capsule did not increase sinking speeds much beyond sinking reported for planktonic single unhatched blastulae in other taxa. Some embryos died through failure to launch, but capsules provided low sinking speeds during drift, brief residence in shallow intertidal waters, and protection from microbial and chemical hazards on sediments when sunk.

Similar evolutionary trajectories in an environmental Cryptococcus neoformans isolate after human and murine infection

A pet cockatoo was the suspected source of Cryptococcus neoformans recovered from an immunocompromised patient with cryptococcosis based on molecular analyses available in 2000. Here, we report whole genome sequence analysis of the clinical and cockatoo strains. Both are closely related MATα strains belonging to the VNII lineage, confirming that the human infection likely originated from pet bird exposure. The two strains differ by 61 single nucleotide polymorphisms, including eight nonsynonymous changes involving seven genes. To ascertain whether changes in these genes are selected for during mammalian infection, we passaged the cockatoo strain in mice. Remarkably, isolates obtained from mouse tissue possess a frameshift mutation in one of the seven genes altered in the human sample (LQVO5_000317), a gene predicted to encode an SWI-SNF chromatin-remodeling complex protein. In addition, both cockatoo and patient strains as well as mouse-passaged isolates obtained from brain tissue had a premature stop codon in a homologue of ZFC3 (LQVO5_004463), a predicted single-zinc finger containing protein, which is associated with larger capsules when deleted and reverted to a full-length protein in the mouse-passaged isolates obtained from lung tissue. The patient strain and mouse-passaged isolates show variability in virulence factors, with differences in capsule size, melanization, rates of nonlytic expulsion from macrophages, and amoeba predation resistance. Our results establish that environmental strains undergo genomic and phenotypic changes during mammalian passage, suggesting that animal virulence can be a mechanism for genetic change and that the genomes of clinical isolates may provide a readout of mutations acquired during infection.