Capsule Size Research Articles

Alkaloid Accumulation and Distribution within the Capsules of Two Opium Poppy (Papaver somniferum L.) Varieties.

The goal of this study was to clarify the role of capsule size and morphology in the alkaloid yield of poppy. In 2023, two industrial varieties from large-scale cultivation were investigated. Three classes of capsule size (large, medium, and small) and four organelles (wall, placenta, disc, and thalamus) of the seedless capsule were studied for their mass proportions and alkaloid contents. In 'Meara', large capsules had 41% lower total alkaloid levels than smaller ones. In 'Morgana', there was no difference in total alkaloids between size groups, but large capsules had higher contents of codeine and thebaine. Among the four organelles, the wall represented the largest mass in both varieties (60-67%), while the disc and the thalamus gave the lowest proportions (below 9%). In the variety 'Meara', the highest alkaloid contents appeared in the wall (2.69% d.w.), followed by the placenta, and the other two parts. 'Morgana' accumulated the highest alkaloid content (3.72% d.w.) in the placenta. Morphine follows the trend of the total content, while codeine and thebaine may differ. Accurate information on the accumulation of alkaloids in the generative organs may contribute to increasing effectiveness in target-oriented breeding and optimization of cultivation with an appropriate choice of variety.

Preparation and heat storage characteristics of high-temperature phase change macrocapsules of chloride eutectic salt

Chloride salts, as high-temperature phase change materials (PCMs), have advantages in terms of high application temperature and high latent heat, but the intrinsic disadvantages such as high corrosiveness and easy leakage have seriously limited their development. Employing the NaCl–KCl binary salt as PCM, a double-shell cladding strategy with an inner layer of expanded graphite and an outer layer of ceramic was proposed, thereby, the chloride phase change macrocapsule with good thermal storage performance was successfully prepared. The double-shell capsules exhibited better leakage resistance and cycling stability. On this basis, the preparation process of double-shell eutectic salt macrocapsules was simplified by using an in-situ melting method, employing the mixed NaCl and KCl as raw materials directly that were transferred to eutectic binary salt inside the capsules during sintering. It is also proposed to improve the heat storage density of the capsules by increasing the capsule size and isostatically pressing the capsule. The NaK-20-200MPa sample indicated the largest heat storage density in the temperature range from 600 °C to 700 °C, with a mass heat storage density of 190.38 J/g, which was 2.85 % higher than that of the NaK-20-0MPa capsules and 36.99 % higher than that of the NaK-5-0MPa capsules. Additionally, the volume heat storage density of the NaK-20-200MPa capsules was 339.19 J/cm3, which was 14.69 % higher than that of the NaK-20-0MPa capsules and 21.52 % higher than that of the NaK-5-0MPa capsules. The good thermal performance and low cost of chloride PCM could ensure the encapsulated salt for use in high-temperature heat storage.

What next: Further implosion space exploration on the path to NIF extended yield capability

We present quantitative motivations and assessments of various proposed and ongoing directions to further improving yields and target gain of igniting indirect-drive implosions at the National Ignition Facility (NIF). These include increasing compression and confinement time, improving hohlraum and ablator efficiency, and further increasing peak power and laser energy. 1D hydroscaled simulations, augmented by analytic 1D theory, have been used to project yield improvements for each of these implosion optimization tracks, normalized to the best current performing 4 MJ shot. At current NIF capabilities of 2.2 MJ, 450 TW, we project several paths could reach 15 MJ yield levels. We also expect several key implosion physics questions will be addressed in attempting to reach this yield level. These include demonstrating to what extent lower adiabat designs leading to higher compression will increase gain and efficiency, and whether we can reduce residual kinetic energy and ablator-fuel mix that is probably limiting the current burn-up fraction. For an envisaged NIF upgrade to EL = 3 MJ at fixed 450 TW peak power, scaling capsule size and fuel thicknesses faster than pure hydroscaling should allow for yields that could reach up to 60–80 MJ, depending on the efficiency gains realized in increasing deuterium-tritium fuel thickness, reducing hohlraum losses, and switching to lower Z ablators. The laser-plasma instability and beam transmission scaling in these larger hohlraums is shown to be favorable if the spot size is increased with hohlraum scale.

Human plasma-like medium (HPLM) induces Cryptococcus neoformans in vivo cell morphologies.

The fungal pathogen Cryptococcus neoformans (C. neoformans) forms yeast cells of different sizes and morphological characteristics during infection. These features are usually not seen in standard laboratory in vitro conditions. Here, we describe in vivo cell morphologies when C. neoformans is grown in human plasma-like medium at 37°C, 5% CO2. We observed mixed-size populations of cells less than 1 µm up to 16.8 µm in cell diameter, increased capsule size, high chitin, and DNA content in larger cells. Our findings show that serum is not required for human plasma-like medium (HPLM)-induced C. neoformans cellular heterogeneity. Thus, this new method offers an opportunity to investigate factors of C. neoformans that mediate pathogenesis or host-pathogen interactions in a physiologically relevant setting.IMPORTANCEWe provide a description of new in vitro culture condition using the human plasma-like medium that supports the formation of the full range of in vivo cell morphologies of C. neoformans.

Formation of Microcapsules of Pullulan by Emulsion Template Mechanism: Evaluation as Vitamin C Delivery Systems.

Pullulan is a polysaccharide that has attracted the attention of scientists in recent times as a former of edible films. On the other hand, its use for the preparation of hydrogels needs more study, as well as the formation of pullulan microcapsules as active ingredient release systems for the food industry. Due to the slow gelation kinetics of pullulan with sodium trimetaphosphate (STMP), capsules cannot be formed through the conventional method of dropping into a solution of the gelling agent, as with other polysaccharides, since the pullulan chains migrate to the medium before the capsules can form by gelation. Pullulan microcapsules have been obtained by using inverse water-in-oil emulsions as templates. The emulsion that acts as a template has been characterized by monitoring its stability and by optical microscopy, and the size of the emulsion droplets has been correlated with the size of the microcapsules obtained, demonstrating that it is a good technique for their production. Although some flocs of droplets form, these remain dispersed during the gelation process and two capsule size distributions are obtained: those of the non-flocculated droplets and the flocculated droplets. The microcapsules have been evaluated as vitamin C release systems, showing zero-order release kinetics for acidic pH and Fickian mechanism for neutral pH. On the other hand, the microcapsules offer good protection of vitamin C against oxidation during an evaluation period of 14 days.

Participants' views of ultra-low dose combination therapy for high blood pressure: a mixed-methods study from the QUARTET trial.

Single-pill combination therapy containing four quarter-dose medications for high blood pressure improves BP control compared to monotherapy, however patient-reported acceptance of the quadpill as a treatment strategy remains undescribed. We collected within-trial feedback and interviewed participants from the quadruple ultra-low-dose treatment for hypertension (QUARTET) trial to characterise patient attitudes to this intervention. All trial participants were asked about ease and preference for the quadpill and provided an opportunity to give further comments on the trial at 12 weeks (trial primary endpoint) and 52 weeks extended follow-up. Separately, we used purposive and quota sampling for the semi-structured telephone interviews, with the resultant verbatim transcripts analysed using an inductive thematic analysis approach. Themes were re-evaluated after each successive interview, and at suspected data saturation, an additional interview conducted for confirmation. At 12 weeks follow-up, 502 of 591 (85%) participants responded to acceptability questions, and 359 of 417 (86%) responded at week 52. Most reported the trial capsule easy or very easy to take. From eight sites, 16 participants were interviewed between 5 August 2020 and 19 November 2020. All described a positive experience, preferred once-daily morning dosing and found routine facilitated adherence. Participants valued individual responsibility for adherence, and involvement of the general practitioner in blood-pressure management. Most reported capsule size did not deter adherence but desired a smaller capsule. Participants described a preference for minimising number and dosage of medications, reduced capsule size, and once-daily morning dosing. These findings suggest a preference for single-pill combination therapy for blood pressure lowering.

Supercritical fluid extraction of emulsion-assisted encapsulation of hypocholesterolemic bioactive compounds

β-sitosterol and Curcumin, known for their hypocholesterolemic effects, have difficulties for application in aqueous foods due to their reduced water solubility and stability. The encapsulation technique allows these compounds to be protected, resulting in increased bioavailability and bioaccessibility. This study investigated the feasibility of producing capsules using different biopolymeric coating materials through a Supercritical Fluids Extraction of Emulsions (SFEE) encapsulation process. Emulsions with homogeneous droplet sizes were processed at 40 [°C] by the SFEE method at pressures of 9 and 13 [MPa]. β-sitosterol powder was successfully encapsulated in both polycaprolactone and modified-starch matrices. Curcumin could only be encapsulated in modified starch, probably because of the highly hydrophobic nature of this compound. The resulting powders, with process efficiencies higher than 60%, were characterized by thermal, structural and morphological analyses, indicating agglomerated spherical capsules. Optimal encapsulation was at 9 [MPa] due to smaller capsule sizes, lower pressure requirements and reduced CO2 consumption.

Morphological features of pollen, fruits, and seeds of Turkish Cistus species (Cistaceae)

Pollen, fruit, and seed morphology of the Cistus species (Cistaceae) from Turkey were investigated by light microscopy (LM) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) to describe their characteristics and to clarify the diagnostic importance of these properties for taxonomical purposes. The pollen grains are oblate-spheroidal, with the polar axis ranging from 32 to 55 μm, and the equatorial axis ranging from 34.25 to 57 μm. Microreticulate-rugulate, striato-reticulate, microechinate, and microreticulate with smooth supratectal elements were found on exine sculpturing. The fruits are ovoid, oblong-globose, or ovoid-globose, and their size ranges between 3–11.2 mm in length and 2.9–10.3 mm in width. Capsule surface patterns can be divided into three types, namely irregularly reticulate, striate, and reticulate-areolate. The hairs on the capsule show variation in type: pilose, bifurcate, and stellate. The seeds are polyhedral, ovoid, rhomboid, oblong, or tetrahedral, and their color varies between dark brown, reddish-brown, yellowish-brown, and black. Four seed coat ornamentation types were observed: reticulate-ruminate, reticulate-rugose, colliculate-ruminate, and alveolate-rugose. Cluster analysis and principal component analysis revealed that the pollen dimension, exine sculpturing, capsule size, capsule indumentum type, capsule surface pattern, seed color, and seed coat ornamentation are the most significant variables to differentiate the Cistus species studied.

Factor Analysis of Patients Who Find Tablets or Capsules Difficult to Swallow Due to Their Large Size: Using the Personal Health Record Infrastructure of Electronic Medication Notebooks.

Understanding patient preference regarding taking tablet or capsule formulations plays a pivotal role in treatment efficacy and adherence. Therefore, these preferences should be taken into account when designing formulations and prescriptions. This study investigates the factors affecting patient preference in patients who have difficulties swallowing large tablets or capsules and aims to identify appropriate sizes for tablets and capsules. A robust data set was developed based on a questionnaire survey conducted from December 1, 2022, to December 7, 2022, using the harmo smartphone app operated by harmo Co, Ltd. The data set included patient input regarding their tablet and capsule preferences, personal health records (including dispensing history), and drug formulation information (available from package inserts). Based on the medication formulation information, 6 indices were set for each of the tablets or capsules that were considered difficult to swallow owing to their large size and concomitant tablets or capsules (used as controls). Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analysis was used to evaluate the performance of each index. The index demonstrating the highest area under the curve of the ROC was selected as the best index to determine the tablet or capsule size that leads to swallowing difficulties. From the generated ROCs, the point with the highest discriminative performance that maximized the Youden index was identified, and the optimal threshold for each index was calculated. Multivariate logistic regression analysis was performed to identify the risk factors contributing to difficulty in swallowing oversized tablets or capsules. Additionally, decision tree analysis was performed to estimate the combined risk from several factors, using risk factors that were significant in the multivariate logistic regression analysis. This study analyzed 147 large tablets or capsules and 624 control tablets or capsules. The "long diameter + short diameter + thickness" index (with a 21.5 mm threshold) was identified as the best indicator for causing swallowing difficulties in patients. The multivariate logistic regression analysis (including 132 patients with swallowing difficulties and 1283 patients without) results identified the following contributory risk factors: aged <50 years (odds ratio [OR] 1.59, 95% CI 1.03-2.44), female (OR 2.54, 95% CI 1.70-3.78), dysphagia (OR 3.54, 95% CI 2.22-5.65), and taking large tablets or capsules (OR 9.74, 95% CI 5.19-18.29). The decision tree analysis results suggested an elevated risk of swallowing difficulties for patients with taking large tablets or capsules. This study identified the most appropriate index and threshold for indicating that a given tablet or capsule size will cause swallowing difficulties, as well as the contributory risk factors. Although some sampling biases (eg, only including smartphone users) may exist, our results can guide the design of patient-friendly formulations and prescriptions, promoting better medication adherence.

Formulation and Evaluation of Polyherbal Hematinic Capsule for Pediatrics

Hematinic deficiencies in children, including those related to iron, folic acid, and vitamin B12, are a serious health issue that impact a child's growth, development, and general wellbeing. Administration of dose, taste, and compliance are common problems with conventional therapies. To address these issues, the production and testing of polyherbal hematinic capsules intended for pediatric usage is the main focus of this work. Strong hematinic properties in plant extracts are selected with care, and the right processing methods are used for young users. The capsule size is adjusted for ease of swallowing, and the polyherbal mixture is improved to increase compliance. To ascertain the effectiveness, safety, and suitability for use in pediatric settings, testing is done. The created polyherbal hematinic capsules exhibit outstanding disintegration time, flow characteristics, and an hourly cumulative drug release of 97.7%. The results imply that hematinic polyherbal capsules have potential as a safe and efficient option for treating paediatric hematinic deficits, addressing compliance concerns and providing an appealing dose form.

Riparian invader: A secondary metabolite of Impatiens glandulifera impairs the development of the freshwater invertebrate key species Chironomus riparius

Invasive species represent a significant threat to native biodiversity. The Himalayan Balsam Impatiens glandulifera is an annual plant, which is invasive in Europe and often inhabits the riparian zone. It produces several secondary metabolites causing, for example, growth inhibition of terrestrial plants and invertebrates. One of these metabolites is the quinone 2-methoxy-1,4-naphthoquinone (2-MNQ). The compound gets washed out from the above-ground parts of the plant during precipitation and may then leach into nearby waterbodies. Despite some evidence for the allelopathic effect of plant secondary metabolites on terrestrial invertebrates, little is known about how 2-MNQ affects the survival or development of aquatic dipteran larvae, despite the importance of this functional group in European freshwaters. Here, we investigated the effects of 2-MNQ on larvae of the river keystone species Chironomus riparius in acute and chronic scenarios. The toxicity of 2-MNQ towards the first and the fourth larval stage was determined in a 48-hour acute exposure assay. We show that 2-MNQ has a negative impact on the development, growth and survival of C. riparius. The LC50 of 2-MNQ was 3.19 mg/l for the first instar and 2.09 mg/l for the fourth instar. A ten-day chronic exposure experiment, where the water was spiked with 2-MNQ, revealed that 2-MNQ had a significantly negative impact on larval body size, head capsule size, body weight, development and survival. These results demonstrate the negative impact of the secondary metabolite 2-MNQ from the terrestrial plant I. glandulifera on a crucial macroinvertebrate inhabiting the adjacent stream ecosystem in riverine ecosystems. This may lead to a decline in population size, resulting in cascading effects on the food web.

PROSPECTS FOR THE USE OF PROBIOTIC ENCAPSULATION PROCESS

This article discusses the various types, encapsulation stages, and polymers for encapsulating probiotics. The article reflects several methods of encapsulation, such as spray drying, spray freezing, emulsification, extrusion method, etc. Encapsulation allows isolating the encapsulated material from the surrounding environment until its release occurs. The structure formed by the encapsulating agent around the encapsulated material can be tailored to protect the contents and ensure their release under certain conditions. The size of capsules can range from submicron to several millimeters, and their shape can vary. The content of the capsule can be released through various pathways: mechanical rupture of the capsule, dissolution of the capsule, melting of the capsule, or diffusion through the capsule wall.In our time, a large number of people suffer from gastrointestinal diseases. Encapsulation of dietary supplements (BAA) will help replenish the deficiency of microelements in the human body. The article demonstrates that the use of encapsulated forms of probiotic cultures in the food industry, especially in the production of dairy products, will not only preserve the viability of the applied microorganisms but also provide favorable conditions for their development in the human body.

Gastrointestinal release site for delayed release and gelatin capsules in healthy dogs.

Gelatin capsules deliver their contents to the stomach, while delayed-release (DR) capsules are designed to allow delivery to the small intestine. This study evaluated the gastrointestinal release site of DR capsules in six healthy adult dogs compared to gelatin capsules. Both gelatin and DR capsules were filled with barium-impregnated polyethylene spheres (BIPS™), and following enteral administration, release site was assessed using abdominal radiographs at baseline, immediately after ingestion, 15 min post-ingestion, 30 min post-ingestion, and then every 30 min thereafter. The evaluated phases included fasted conditions (phase 1, n = 6), increased meal size (phase 2, n = 2), double encapsulation (phase 3, n = 2), and altered capsule size (phase 4, n = 1). The released site was the stomach in all phases for both capsule types. In phase 1, DR capsules had a significantly prolonged time (median 60 min, range 60-90) to release BIPS™ compared to gelatin capsules (15 min, range 15-30; p = .03). In phase 2 (full meal size), 3 (double encapsulation), and 4 (smaller capsule size) pilot studies, release time was prolonged but still occurred in the stomach. This is similar to the release site for gelatin capsules but differs from the release site for DR capsules in people. This has implications for pharmacologic outcomes for products that are affected by gastric physiology (e.g. fecal microbiota transplantation). Based on this pilot data, clinicians and researchers should not assume DR capsules will allow for intestinal delivery of contents in dogs. Future studies should be conducted on larger and varied populations of dogs.

Statistical relationships of cnidocyst sizes in the sea anemone Oulactis muscosa (Actiniaria: Actiniidae)

This study analysis the multivariate statistical relationships among cnidocyst types and tissues in terms of cnidocyst capsule size in the sea anemone O. muscosa. In a total of 12 individuals we measured the length of 30 unfired capsules of each cnida type, taken randomly from each of the following tissues: tentacles, acrorhagi, column, actinopharynx and mesenterial fila-ments. In these tissues, we found spirocysts, basitrichs, microbasic b-mastigophores, microbasic p-mastigophores and holotrichs. Thus, a total of 5400 measurements were made. Looking for a common pattern of variation, a principal components analysis (PCA) was performed on the data matrix, among cnidocyst types for each tissue and between tissues for each cnidocyst type. The results showed that the lengths of most cnidocysts, whether from the same or different tissues, are not statistically related to each other, suggesting that different forces (cnidogenesis, replacement dynamics, etc.), could affect in various forms the development and therefore the length of each cnida, depending on the type or tissue of origin.

Facile encapsulation of cyanoacrylate-based bioadhesive by electrospray method and investigation of the process parameters

Polymer microcapsules containing cyanoacrylates have represented a promising option to develop self-healing biomaterials. This study aims to develop an electrospray method for the preparation of capsules using poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) as the encapsulant and ethyl 2-cyanoacrylate (EC) as the encapsulate. It also aims to study the effect of the electrospray process parameters on the size and morphology of the capsules. The capsules were characterized using Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), and field-emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM). Moreover, the effects of electrospray process parameters on the size were investigated by Taguchi experimental design. FTIR and TGA approved the presence of both PMMA and EC without further reaction. FE-SEM micrograph demonstrated that an appropriate choice of solvents, utilizing an appropriate PMMA:EC ratio and sufficient PMMA concentration are critical factors to produce capsules dominantly with an intact and spherical morphology. Utilizing various flow rates (0.3–0.5 ml/h) and applied voltage (18–26 kV), capsules were obtained with a 600–1000 nm size range. At constantly applied voltages, the increase in flow rate increased the capsule size up to 40% (ANOVA, p ≤ 0.05), while at constant flow rates, the increase in applied voltage reduced the average capsule size by 3.4–26% (ANOVA, p ≤ 0.05). The results from the Taguchi design represented the significance of solution flow rate, applied voltage, and solution concentration. It was shown that the most effective parameter on the size of capsules is flow rate. This research demonstrated that electrospray can be utilized as a convenient method for the preparation of sub-micron PMMA capsules containing EC. Furthermore, the morphology of the capsules is dominated by solvents, PMMA concentration, and PMMA:EC ratio, while the average size of the capsules can be altered by adjusting the flow rate and applied voltage of the electrospray process.

Encapsulation of SE‐P47 phage specific to SalmonellaEnteritidis and evaluation of its stability

AbstractThis study was conducted to encapsulate the bacteriophage SE‐P47 target to Salmonella Enteritidis by extrusion method and to examine its stability. Screening and optimization of effective factors in the encapsulation process were performed using fractional factorial design and face‐centered central composite design, respectively. The optimum Na‐alginate concentration and the ratio of coating material to phage for the encapsulation of SE‐P47 phage were 1.5% (v/v) and 2:1, respectively. At the optimum encapsulation point, the highest encapsulation efficiency (98.52%), smallest capsule size (1.28 mm), and highest phage titer were achieved. When exposed to heat treatment at 80°C for 30 min, pH 2 and simulated gastric fluid (pH 2.0) for 120 min, the encapsulated phage maintained almost its stability, but the free (non‐encapsulated) phage almost lost its activity. Phage release from beads in simulated intestinal fluid reached 100% in 4 h. In addition, free and encapsulated phage completely maintained their activity for 12 months at 4 and 25°C. The Salmonella phage encapsulated in this study exhibits high stability in harsh conditions. Thus, this encapsulated phage has the potential to be used as a biocontrol agent or therapeutic purposes in the food chain.

Order–disorder transitions within deformable particle suspensions in planar Poiseuille flow

Three-dimensional simulations of the ordering of elastic capsule suspensions within planar Poiseuille flow channels are reported. The simulations utilize the immersed boundary method coupled with the lattice Boltzmann method to capture the complex flow-induced capsule deformations and hydrodynamic interactions within the suspensions. A parametric study is presented whereby the confinement ratio and the particle deformability are varied independently within a two-dimensional range relevant to this ordering phenomenon. The initial distribution of capsules is random, and the simulations evolve the system from a disordered state to an ordered one, while an order parameter that quantifies the fraction of capsules belonging to one-dimensional train assemblies is computed throughout time. A monotonic increase in ordering is observed with increasing deformability. However, an optimal confinement ratio is identified corresponding to a peak in the order parameter. This peak is attributed to the competition between increasing long-range capsule attractions and decreasing in-plane capsule density (with fixed volume fraction) as the confinement ratio increases. Simulations are also performed to understand how dispersity in capsule size and deformability impact the degree of ordering. It is shown that ordering is quite sensitive to dispersity in capsule size, and much less sensitive to dispersity in deformability. Overall, the results provide important insights for the design of microfluidic devices.

An experimental study of melting behavior of the phase change material in cylindrical capsules for thermal energy storage

Intermittent solar energy needs energy storage to store during its peak availability. Phase change materials (PCM) store heat energy under a near isothermal condition. The PCM has a high energy storage density but its low thermal conductivity reduces its melting. The present study uses three heat transfer fluid (HTF) flow configurations, outer, inner, and combined flow (inner and outer), with gradually decreasing PCM capsule sizes, to expedite melting in a horizontal cylindrical thermal energy storage container. Three copper PCM capsules are attached to the inner heat transfer tube. The HTF at 65, 70, and 75 °C are used to analyze the PCM melting. The HTF at 75 °C expedites PCM melting due to more temperature gradients. The energy efficiency during PCM melting is about 17 % for the outer, 15 % for the inner, and 24 % for combined flow. The PCM melts at 16, 20, and 10 min for outer, inner, and combined flow. The solidification characteristics were studied by passing HTF at 30 °C after melting. The PCM solidifies at 46, 62, and 24 min for outer, inner, and combined flow. The combined flow is suitable for the expedited PCM fusion due to enhanced heat transfer and hence suggested for flat plate solar collectors and heat recovery systems.

Threshold size of Tablet and Capsule : Prospective Study

Background: Medical tablets and capsules are the most commonly used dose form due to their portability. However, their enormous size frequently causes difficulties during swallowing, which might lead to decreased drug adherence. The authors examined postmarketing surveillance data to assess the size of medical tablets and capsules that patients consider too large to swallow. Aim: This study aims to learn the law behind keeping the shape or size of capsules/ tablets in higher dimensions. Method: A dataset was created from the package inserts of the reported medications based on reports from patients saying that the pill or capsule was too large for consumption. Two analyses were performed: size distribution histogram analysis and geometric analysis utilizing linear approximation. Conclusion: The size of tablets/capsules that patients consider too large to consume. As a result, while creating or modifying tablets/capsules, the drug should be scored, divided into smaller dosages, or redesigned as an orally disintegrating formulation.

Use of Lactulose as Prebiotic and Chitosan Coating for Improvement the Viability of Lactobacillus sp. FM4.C1.2 Microencapsulate with Alginate

Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) constitute the microbial group most used as probiotics; however, many strains reduce their viability during their transit through the body. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of two microencapsulation techniques, as well as the incorporation of lactulose as a prebiotic and the use of chitosan coating on the microcapsules, on the viability of the Lactobacillus sp. strain FM4.C1.2. LAB were microencapsulated by extrusion or emulsion, using 2% sodium alginate as encapsulating matrix and lactulose (2 or 4%) as the prebiotic. The encapsulation efficiency was evaluated, and the capsules were measured for moisture and size. The encapsulation efficiency ranged between 80.64 and 99.32% for both techniques, with capsule sizes between 140.64 and 1465.65 µm and moisture contents from 88.23 to 98.04%. The microcapsules of some selected treatments (five) were later coated with chitosan and LAB survival was evaluated both in coated and uncoated microcapsules, through tolerance to pH 2.5, bile salts and storage for 15 days at 4 °C. The highest survival of the probiotic strain under the conditions of pH 2.5 (96.78–99.2%), bile salts (95.54%) and storage for 15 days (84.26%), was found in the microcapsules obtained by emulsion containing 4% lactulose and coated with chitosan. These results demonstrate the possible interaction of lactulose with alginate to form better encapsulating networks, beyond its sole probiotic effect. Additional research may shed more light on this hypothesis.