Caliphate Research Articles

Moral Foundations of Power and State in Teachings of Ibn al-Azraq

The article deals with the main ideas of the political philosophy of Abu Abdallah Ibn al-Azraq al-Garnati (1427-1491), a well-known Muslim statesman, supreme judge of Granada, lawyer, diplomat, supporter of Arab Muslim peripatetism, a student of the outstanding thinker of the Muslim Middle Ages Ibn Khaldun (1332-1406). In the history of the political philosophy of the Muslim East, a number of major transformations in the development of the Arab Caliphate from the Medina state of the prophet to the Sultanate in the Abbasid period should be noted, which were reflected in the development of the theory of the Arab-Muslim state (caliphate). The main problem of the theory of the caliphate was connected with the question of the relationship between power and authority in the context of the moral foundations of the state. The creative heritage of Ibn al-Azraq is mainly known for his work in the genre of adab ("mirrors of princes") “Miracles on the way, or the Nature of dominion”. The treatise became a classic of the political philosophy of the Muslim Middle Ages, in which, under the influence of Aristotelian ideas, a special place was given to the moral foundations of power and the state, that is, ethics was considered as a political science. In the form of instructive parables, the rulers and heirs to the throne were explained the basics of state administration as part of their studies and education. His doctrine of the virtues can be viewed as ethical rationalism with a belief in the moral perfection of people in power and subjects of the state. Since morals are largely acquired and a person can control them, the task of purifying his own morals and curing them is entrusted to him. In addition, accordingly, it is possible and necessary to cultivate virtues in rulers, since the well-being of the state and the ummah depends on their morals. The moral foundations of power determine the strength of political authority.

КРАТКИЙ ОБЗОР ЮРИДИЧЕСКОЙ ТЕРМИНОЛОГИИ ЧЕЧЕНСКОГО ЯЗЫКА: СУЩНОСТЬ И ГЛОТТОГОНИЯ

The article is devoted to a brief analysis of the legal terminology of the Chechen language, its glottogony and content. Objectively, it so happened that over the past few centuries of their history, the Chechens have been in permanent wars, defending both their national interests and the interests of neighboring Caucasian peoples, states, as well as the great empires in which they were part. Therefore, it is quite natural that the Chechens' long-term trade, economic, political, legal, social, spiritual, cultural and military contacts with the Arab Caliphate, the Persian, Ottoman and Russian Empires had a significant impact on their legal terminology. One of the results of their co-existence was the formation of a completely new legal terminology, the national basis of which was supplemented by terms borrowed by Chechens from Arabic, Persian, Turkish, Latin and Slavic (Romance-Germanic) language. The author of this study, based on direct and indirect (indirect) sources of the state-legal life of the Chechen people, presented a general description of the legal terminology formed at the present stage of the state-legal and historical development of the Chechens.

Opposition Movement Against the Umayyad Dynasty's Rule (661-750)

The Umayyad dynasty or better known as the Umayyad dynasty was the first Islamic caliphate after the end of the Khulafaur Rashidin caliphate. The duration of the reign of the Umayyad dynasty lasted from 661 to 750 ruled in the Arabian Peninsula and around the city of Damascus, then its reign in Spain from 756 to 1031 stood as the Caliphate of Cordoba. The term Umayyad dynasty refers to Umayyah bin Abdu Shams great grandfather of Muawiyah bin Abu Sufyan. In the political realm, the term "opposition" is defined as a party that opposes the representative council and opposes and criticizes a political policy of the ruling group. The name opposition is absorbed from the translation of Opposition. So in this article, we will discuss about the groups that intensified the opposition movement against the Umayyad Daulah, these groups include; The Si'ah, Mawali, Sunni, Abbasid groups.

The Construction of Habib Rizieq Shihab's Political Islamic Thought in the Post-Reform Indonesian Context

This article describes a religious movement figure in post-Reformation Indonesia (1998), namely Habib Rizieq Shihab, who had a mass organization considered radical, namely the Islamic Defenders Front. This article answers the accusation that Shihab was anti-state politics, anti-Pancasila, anti-the Republic of Indonesia, and was intolerant of anyone different from the movement he had led. This study uses the content analysis method, namely analyzing the ideas in Shihab's writings and lectures to reveal his Islamic political ideology. This study found that Shihab's theology was Ashary and Shafiy Sunni with Alawiy Tareqat order. The Muslim Brotherhood influenced Shihab's thoughts and Al-Maududi's ideas, namely, aspiring to an Islamic state or formalizing religious constitutional law into a condition known as Islamic law. At the local level, Shihab was influenced by the local scholar M. Natsir. However, Shihab's political Islamic thought results gave distinctive features and differed from the existing typology. Shihab accepted Pancasila as the basis of the state. However, the "Shari'ated Indonesia" concept was a theistic concept perceived as implementing the Islamic caliphate vision and mission and the reincarnation of the 1945 Jakarta Charter Pancasila.

ʿUmar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb’s Encounter with an Unnamed Monk: From History to Legend

ABSTRACT The Ambrosian Library in Milan has preserved thirteen very interesting folios written in an archaic semi-Kūfī Arabic script, describing an encounter between the second caliph of Islam ʿUmar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb and an unnamed monk. We demonstrate how the anonymous author of this manuscript was familiar with the ṣulḥ agreements, the covenants of the Prophet Muḥammad, and historical and anecdotal accounts of encounters between ʿUmar and ecclesiastical authorities. We postulate that our author composed his narrative on the basis of his own historical imagination from sources that probably belonged to monastic archives to which he had access. The author aimed to deliver a subtle political message, highlighting the archetypal relationship between a Muslim ruler and a Christian subject living under Islam. Two adaptations of our text have been found in Islamic sources, the first in al-Khaṭīb al-Baghdādī’s Al-zuhd wa- al-raqāʾiq, and the second in Ibn ʿAsākir’s Tārīkh madīnat Dimashq, which we argue reflect a later re-working of the original narrative.

Changing Dynamics of Arab Rule in Multan from the Eighth to Eleventh Centuries CE

This article studies the political, social, and economic patterns of Multan under Arab rule based on both primary and secondary sources. The mercantile cosmopolis Multan remained at the periphery of the central Muslim empires and had a heterogenous population with orthodox and heterodox tendencies. The rulers of these regions realized that their political power dynamics could not be like those of the centre because of their mercantile and pilgrim economy. Under the Banū Sāmah, the emirs of Multan followed a metadoxy, pietistic, and mercantile cosmopolitanism policy, as the state measures for the imposition of orthodoxy and the control of the belief system were lax. Nevertheless, the Fatimids destroyed the Aditya Sun Temple, though they signed a truce with Hindu kingdoms of surrounding areas against Maḥmūd of Ghazni without foreseeing its consequences. Multan’s political and religious dynamics in the medieval era were intricately intertwined with the political, moral, and financial economy as the economic, political, and multicultural religious dynamics were in deep nexus.

US Invasion of Iraq, 2003: Indirect Link of ISIS Rising

This study will describe an indirect link of the US Invasion of Iraq (2003) and test how the US occupation of Iraq served, from an American perspective, as a derivative product with negative side effects several years later in the Middle East. In seeking to understand the dynamic of any event in foreign policy, political scientists need to be aware of the role and spread of key ideas and how they emerged, developed, and eventually influenced events. Accordingly, analysis of existing perceptions should also consider the critical impacts of past events and crises. “The power of the ideas,” as presented by the rebirth of the ancient idea of the Muslim Caliphate, was mostly covert throughout the years. However, understanding this event requires examining the formative influence of the US Invasion of Iraq (2003), which ended with the Islamic State taking power in Iraq and al-Sham (ISIS). This radical group has declared a Muslim Caliphate and claims control over a large area of Iraq and Syria.

The scope of accountants activities in the Islamic Caliphate (6321418)

Purpose: The article aims to establish the scope of accounting tasks in the Islamic Caliphate in the Middle Ages based on the literature on the subject based on primary sources. Methodology/approach: Expert literature review, interpretative and inductive method. Findings: The duties and responsibilities of accountants in the medieval Muslim community were very broad (using information from the accounting system to ensure that the interests of the umma were respected in the context of religious law). In addition to operating seven accounting systems in the Caliphate and having knowledge of the complicated recording and control procedures associated with it, accountants had to demonstrate the ability to prepare periodic financial statements and budgets, used as an internal control tool and for the analysis and interpretation of reports. They also acted as auditors a mandatory practice in the Islamic Caliphate. They also offered their services to individual entrepreneurs (for the purpose of fulfilling zakat payments). Practical implications: The article provides a better understanding of the historical evolution of the accounting profession. Originality/value: The article presents little-known issues, such as the premises for the evolution of the accounting profession in the Islamic Caliphate, determining the scope of account-ants tasks and thus filling the cognitive gap.

Modernist movements in Islam. Historical overview. 19th century

         This article provides a brief overview of the historical conditions of emergence of modernistic movemen in muslim world in 19 century.Also made an attempt to show difference between directions in which different branches of muslim modernists developed their ideas, such as secular direction and theological modernistic direction.Also touched the main subjects of discussion within modernistic discource such as taqlid, ijtihad, hijab and woman rights. The article reveals the historical causal relationship between the modernist wave that swept the Muslim world in the 19th century, when over the decades new thinking was formed trying to reconcile the Islamic faith and modern values, such as constitutionalism, and touched upon issues such as cultural revival, nationalism, freedom religious interpretation, scientific modernist studies, education, women's rights and a host of other topics, and the subsequent political constitutionalist movements of the early 20th century. The article touches upon the question of what inconsistencies Muslim modernists saw between Islam and modern values, what they saw for their reasons and what ways they saw ways out of the prevailing circumstances. There are also some fragmentary historical parallels with the Christian world, where constitutionalism also came through a series of revolutions and socio-political reforms, and examples of repression against dissent are given, showing that religious fanaticism is historically nothing characteristic of Islam, but is a part of history and other religions. Attention is also drawn to the fact that the negative part of the history of the Inquisitions and the persecution of dissent did not prevent the Christian world from successfully going through the process of modernization and an attempt is made to find the reasons for the lagging behind in this sense of a certain part of the Muslim civilization. The article also talks about when and what kind of historical necessity pushed the Muslim world to the active development of the ideas of modernism. A specific period is named, namely the first half of the 19th century, starting with the Napoleonic military campaign in Egypt, when the threat of complete domination of the Christian world hung over the main Muslim empires, and it is said about which Muslim intellectuals and statesmen of that time were prompted activities objective awareness of the fact that the Muslim world is lagging behind, who should be considered the fathers of Islamic modernism and what works of reformers are considered to be canonical.

The End of Two Illusions: Islam After the West by Hamid Dabashi

Reviewed by: The End of Two Illusions: Islam After the West by Hamid Dabashi Joseph Evans (bio) The End of Two Illusions: Islam After the West by Hamid Dabashi. Oakland, CA: University of California Press, 2022, 333 pp. Hamid Dabashi's The End of Two Illusions is an insightful socio-political analysis. Dabashi argues that the strictly defined theoretical opposition between "Islam and the West" is a recent, but false, historical construct that is both obsolete and dangerous. This text demonstrates that the prevalence of supposed contradictions between "Islam" and "the West" is a pretense that disguises an exaggerated geopolitics of power. Dabashi, a professor of Iranian Studies and Comparative Literature at Columbia University, makes a compelling argument. He suggests that the "de-formative and dangerous binary" is a repercussion of the encounters between fading Muslim empires and growing global domination by European empires in the seventeenth century that is now utilized for contemporary political purposes (28). Dabashi proposes that the opposition in this false binary is an illusion supported by "the West" thinking that "it is exclusively bestowed with the gift of civilization" (29). The text successfully offers an alternative perspective for reconsidering the popular and influential arguments that place "Islam" in opposition to "the West." The End of Two Illusions begins with a perspective on Islam before its encounter with European colonialism, then a historical archeology of "the West," which allows for a deconstruction of the illusory opposition between them. It broadens the narrow scope of focusing only on military encounters by including cultural and intellectual engagements. After a lengthy introduction, Dabashi presents his argument in three interrelated parts: he accounts for the dissimilar categories of the binary, then he shows how the two parts of this relationship are erroneous, and finally he furnishes the reader with factual evidence to effectively understand the geopolitical reality. The author asks how a religion of one and a half billion people spread over five continents and developed over fourteen hundred years can be set at odds with an "imaginative geography, only recently invented, called 'the West'?" (38) This vital question drives the book's argument and should promote serious reconsideration of the contemporary world. Dabashi's approach is effective because he is equally critical of all sides and perspectives. He recognizes the complexities of global politics and cultural engagement. This text is not simply an attack on the West or an apologetic for Islam but an argument that these are two different entities that should not be oversimplified or even compared. The carefully crafted argument makes [End Page 90] it clear that the lines are blurred, and that this inappropriate binary is a cause, rather than a symptom, of the problem. The text contends that Islam and the West "are not two different phenomena, but coterminous, both the outcome of an identical colonial condition and in need of a simultaneous post-colonial critique" (18). Dabashi places the current state of Islamism in a larger frame of reference, in the global context of its categorical opposition posited against "the West." He concludes by arguing that the historical uses and abuses of that binary opposition are no longer useful or legitimate despite having been politically productive in the past. An important component of Dabashi's approach is the attention he gives to the formation of a transnational public sphere where "Islam and the West" is no longer a credible presupposition. The last three chapters of the book develop this approach by concentrating on the intersectionality of the crucial issues of race, class, and gender. A critical contribution of this text, which is handled skillfully by the author, is his treatment of the concept and practice of dialogue. Dabashi addresses the complexities of interreligious and intercultural dialogue, identifying some of the dangers in common approaches, while offering useful recommendations. He notes in chapter five that a "dialogue of civilizations" was lost after 9/11 because of the wide acceptance of Huntington's thesis of a clash of civilizations, resulting in a monologue rather than a dialogue (174). This model, which Dabashi refers to as "impossible dialogue," became a means of domination, which is a common pitfall of dialogue when utilized to impose one's...

Political theologies of Christian missionaries, European colonialism, and postcolonial resistance

This review supplements William Bain’s Political Theology of International Order by sketching out two historical threads that are inseparable from the histories of European thought and order that occupy the book. There are gestures toward both strands along the margins of Bain’s account, in a few observations and footnotes. They also have important implications for the place of political theological difference in this story and for the status of colonialism, hierarchy, and resistance. First, I expand on some of the book’s references to non-Christians and discuss the place of Islamic theology. Second, reflecting on Luther in relation to Muslim empires and adapting Bain’s acknowledgment of Grotius’s justifications for colonialism, I highlight the significance of hierarchy, enmity, and violence for a number of the thinkers mentioned, especially what their political theologies authorize in relation to non-Christians. These two sets of observations can help us imagine a complementary story less about international order than about the politics of proselytization and colonization. It also raises questions about the work that political theology as an analytic can do, especially when we globalize political theory and international political thought. I conclude by pondering the place of resistance in relation to imposed order and immanent order.

Ispahbads of Tabarestan and Convergence with Islamic Civilization

The history of Tabarestan or Mazandaran, a part of the lush and elongated expanse located between the Caspian Sea and the Alborz Mountains, has witnessed many transformations in connection with the history of Iran and Islam. Despite the Arab Muslim advance into the vast majority of Southwest Asia, due to its unique climatic conditions and distinct social characteristics, Tabarestan resisted the influence of the Islamic political system and the acceptance of the new culture and religion. One of the reasons for this resistance was the presence of independent ruling dynasties known as the Ispahbads, whose rulers outwardly accepted the sovereignty of the Arab caliphs to preserve their hereditary power, until the rise of the Alavids and Daylamites diminished their influence. This research, aiming to investigate the nature and process of political relations between the Ispahbad dynasties of Tabarestan and the Islamic Caliphate during the 7th to 10th centuries CE, employs a descriptive-analytical method to discuss the nature and reasons behind the interaction and confrontation between the local rulers of Tabarestan and the Umayyad and Abbasid caliphs, seeking to uncover the hidden aspects of local history in this period. The research findings indicate that the Ispahbads of Tabarestan, by implementing a dual and pragmatic policy, sought to safeguard the ancient structure of their political system and the homogeneous fabric of their subordinate society in Tabarestan from transformation, thereby contributing to the continuity of the existing status quo. However, with the arrival of new actors, most of them ceded the field to the emerging players in the political and power arena of medieval Iran.

THE ISLAMIC COMMUNAL LANDS IJMA: IN THE CASE OF MEDIEVAL AND EARLY MODERN AZERBAIJAN

Land properties and the legal regimes that they are subject, provide important data on the legal, social, economic and military aspects of a given country and characterize its economic features. In the countries of the Middle East, the system of land tenure, based on Sharia Law, was formed during the period of the Arab Caliphate and, with minor changes, lasted for centuries. The aim of this paper is to examine the main essence of the Islamic communal land property- arazî-i ijma or arazî-i āmma in the medieval and early modern Azerbaijan, based on the several documents of the title-deed - qabale. This research proposes a concept that being land in the public benefits, arazî-i ijma was one of the forms of private ownership- mulk lands.

RELIGION AND POLITICAL POWER IN THE CAUCASIAN ALBANIA PRIOR TO AND DURING THE ARAB CONQUESTS

This paper examines the impact of 7th century political and military developments in the region on the position of the Caucasian Albanian Church. Holding a weak position among the common people, who preserved ancient traditions, the Caucasian Albanian Church proved unable to maintain its position after the Arab conquest, which created new political conditions. Prior to and during the Arab conquest the struggle between dyophysitism and monophysitism created uncertainty and weakened the status of Christianity in the region. Studies show that the Caucasian Albanian Church was an adherent of monothelitism and maintained close ties with Byzantium and the Georgian Orthodox Church throughout most of the Mihranid dynasty’s reign. However, with the strengthening of the Arab Caliphate during Umayyad rule, the political situation changed and the Armenian Church, holding good relations with the Caliphate, achieved the subordination of the Caucasian Albanian Church. The study reveals a number of reasons for the weakening and subordination of the Albanian Church to the Armenian.

The Contributions of Caliph Abu Bakr to the First Muslim Liberation of Islamicjerusalem

The first Muslim fath/ liberation of Islamicjerusalem in the seventh century was a remarkable historical turning point for the Holy Land. After centuries of exclusion, peace and inclusivity in Holy Land were finally established. Moreover, this historical event raised the standing of Islam between two superpowers, Byzantium and the Persia. As this vital event occurred in the era of ‘Umar Ibn al-Khattāb, several studies have documented his significant role. However, limited literature focuses on the role of his predecessor, the first Muslim Caliph, Abū Bakr al-Siddiq. Since his appointment as Caliph, Abū Bakr made crucial contributions not only to strengthen the foundation of the Islamic State in Madinah but also to liberate Islamicjerusalem. Investigation and analysis based on primary sources and historical records show that Caliph Abū Bakr was determined to continue the Prophet's plan to liberate Bayt al-Maqdis. Therefore, this study examined Caliph Abū Bakr’s contributions during his reign in paving the way for the liberation of the Holy Land. His significant contributions included sending out ’Usamah’s army, securing domestic threats and uniting Muslims during the Apostates War, prioritising and directing armies to al-Sham, and even the selection of his successor, all of which has contributed to the liberation of Bayt al-Maqdis. The result of this study supports the view that Caliph Abū Bakr's contributions enabled the first Muslim liberation of Islamicjerusalem to be achieved merely a few years after his demise, during the reign of his successor, ‘Umar Ibn al-Khattāb.

MEDIA REPORTING OF TERRORISM: A CASE STUDY OF ISLAMIC STATE OF IRAQ AND SYRIA (ISIS)

Terrorist organizations have long realized the invaluable benefits of various media platforms, particularly social media, in achieving their tactical, operational and strategic goals. They have figured out how to make an impact through social media. Researchers have found that media plays a significant role in disseminating messages supporting terrorism. Since the September 11, 2001 attacks, terrorism has attracted much media attention. ISIS, in particular, has produced the most technologically sophisticated propaganda compared to other terrorist groups. Since terrorism has received so much media attention, it is vital to understand how it is presented in international news. This study, therefore, examines terrorists' use of media while focusing on ISIS as a case study. Research findings suggest that employing media as a weapon in combat is vital to ISIS's strategy to establish a hypothetical Islamic caliphate. ISIS uses media for three central goals: promoting its propaganda, recruiting new fighters, and inciting violence. The article employs framing theory, a study of comparative journalism and global media coverage of terrorism. This paper also explores the idea that media coverage may very well encourage acts of terrorism. Bibliography Entry Sunawar, Lubna. 2022. "Media Reporting of Terrorism: A Case Study of Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS)." Margalla Papers 26 (2): 62-71.

CONTRIBUTIONS OF MUSLIMS AND ISLAM IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF MEDICAL SCIENCE

Muslims have played very important role in the field of medical science. They began experiments and observations from the first century of Hijra. Islam created great enthusiasm for scientific activities. After extensive translation from Greek, Sanskrit and some other ancient languages into Arabic, Islamic physicians had at their disposal nearly all the valuable medical works, like Hippocratic and Galenic writings. Islamic physicians were immensely influenced by them, and largely depended on their studies as they considered them medical authorities. One of the important physicians in Islam was Avicenna (980-1037) the king of medicine. He had a great influence in the West and the East and was regarded as a medical authority until the era of medical studies. It was used as textbook in the West and East. Another Muslim physician in Islam who had great influence on later Ottoman physicians was Ibn al Nafis. In the 14th century Mansoor bin Muhammad composed a monograph on anatomy called" Illustrated Anatomy " By the eighth century, most of Europe was deep in the dark ages, with only the Byzantine Empire preserving a few fragments of the ancient knowledge. Islamic Caliphate provided a stable environment for Islamic Scholars, who were sponsored by the ruling class. Most Islamic scholars were free to undertake pure research. As with the Ancient Greeks, the Islamic observations on life were closely tied to philosophy and theology. There are so many Muslim scholars who contributed a lot in the field of medical Science and will be discussed in my research paper

Insecurity and Anxiety in Northeast Nigeria and Boko Haram Agenda Conspiracy Theories: Lake Chad Basin’s Oil and Water Polemics

In Nigeria and other nations with their territory being part of the Lake Chad Basin, anxiety is high and growing because Boko Haram’s “strident messages exacerbate intra-Muslim tensions and worsen Muslim-Christian relations in the region” (Thurston 2016: 5). In addition, because the agenda of Boko Haram appear jumbled and its sponsors indistinct, curiosity has led to the conceptualization of theories aimed at providing illumination. The study interpretively discusses how insecurity and anxieties in northeast Nigeria resulting from Boko Haram’s insurgency propel the articulation of several conspiracy theories explaining Boko Haram’s emergence, evolution and agenda, and the areas where lack of consensus subsists. The study classifies the theories into three categories, namely, the Freedom Fighter and Soldiers of Faith, Proxy Political Tool, and Islamic Caliphate Quest theories, and examines their suppositions and arguments to highlight the degree of plausibility. Substantially, the study expands the ‘Islamic Caliphate Quest’ theory to include the place of ‘oil’ and ‘water’ as likely variables that illuminate other trajectories.

ভূমি ব্যবস্থাপনায় শুফ্‘আ আইনের ভূমিকা: একটি তুলনামূলক বিশ্লেষণ |Role of Shuf’a Law in Land Management : A Comparative Analysis

The Shufʻa (preemption) or 'Side-Land Pre-Purchase Right Law' is a land by-law of Islamic Shari'ah law. The role of Shuf’a Law in land management is immense. Because Shufʻa law preserves the rights of all classes of partners and neighbors of the respective land. In the year 622 AD, the first practical application of this law took place in the state of Madinah Munawarah established by the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH). For around 1400 years, this law played an incredibly important role as an acclaimed land law of Muslim empires. Note that the amount of per capita land is gradually decreasing as the current global population increases. In such a situation, the land department along with the land owners are going through a transitional period in the purchase and sale of these poorly fragmented lands. In this situation, the land management law including the land pre-purchase right law need to be made more rich, practical and up-to-date. This article presents an authentic and evidence-based discussion of various aspects of Shufʻa Law. In addition, an attempt has been made to make a comparative analysis between the Shufʻa Law and the existing law of the country. The article has been prepared in a descriptive, analytical and comparative manner. Analyzing the results of Shuf'a law and relevant issues, presented in this article, it can be seen that the elements of this law can play an important role in the land management including the upgradation of Shufʻa Law.

SOME QUESTIONS OF ISLAMIC CRIMINAL LAW

Islamic criminal law is one of the important fields of fiqh in Islamic jurisprudence. Islamic criminal law began to take shape in the very first years of the Muslim community, during the lifetime of Prophet Muhammad, and as Islam, unlike other religions, quickly became the state religion of the Arab caliphate, the Ottoman Empire, Iran. The uniqueness of Islam as a religion and ideology is that it encompasses any sphere of human life, reaching into every human action. What is not in the revelation of God or in the Qur'an is filled with the explanations (hadiths) of Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) (for the Shiites also by the sayings of the righteous Caliph Ali). And what is not described in the holy books can be supplemented by the joint decisions of the authoritative theological scholars and the analogies made in various Islamic schools. Thus, a Muslim judge has a wide range of choices to make.Due to the confessional nature of the population, Islamic law is now fully or partially enforced in many countries of the world or in some regions of some countries. In these states or regions, Islamic criminal law may be enacted in various doses, which is why the study of Islamic criminal law remains a priority for jurists, as well as the study of the history of law.