Calculation Of Greenhouse Gas Emissions Research Articles

Systematic Review of Dairy Processing Sludge and Secondary STRUBIAS Products Used in Agriculture

Worldwide dairy processing plants produce high volumes of dairy processing sludge (DPS), which can be converted into secondary derivatives such as struvite, biochar and ash (collectively termed STRUBIAS). All of these products have high fertilizer equivalent values (FEV), but future certification as phosphorus (P)-fertilizers in the European Union will mean they need to adhere to new technical regulations for fertilizing materials i.e., content limits pertaining to heavy metals (Cd, Cu, Hg, Ni, Pb, and Zn), synthetic organic compounds and pathogens. This systematic review presents the current state of knowledge about these bio-based fertilizers and identifies knowledge gaps. In addition, a review and calculation of greenhouse gas emissions from a range of concept dairy sludge management and production systems for STRUBIAS products [i.e., biochar from pyrolysis and hydrochar from hydrothermal carbonization (HTC)] is presented. Results from the initial review showed that DPS composition depends on product type and treatment processes at a given processing plant, which leads to varied nutrient, heavy metal and carbon contents. These products are all typically high in nutrients and carbon, but low in heavy metals. Further work needs to concentrate on examining their pathogenic microorganism and emerging contaminant contents, in addition to conducting an economic assessment of production and end-user costs related to chemical fertilizer equivalents. With respect to STRUBIAS products, contaminants not present in the raw DPS may need further treatment before being land applied in agriculture e.g., heated producing ashes, hydrochar, or biochar. An examination of these products from an environmental perspective shows that their water quality footprint could be minimized using application rates based on P incorporation of these products into nutrient management planning and application by incorporation into the soil. Results from the concept system showed that elimination of methane emissions was possible, along with a reduction in nitrous oxide. Less carbon (C) is transferred to agricultural fields where DPS is processed into biochar and hydrochar, but due to high recalcitrance, the C in this form is retained much longer in the soil, and therefore STRUBIAS products represent a more stable and long-term option to increase soil C stocks and sequestration.

Estimation of greenhouse gas emission from household activities during the COVID-19 pandemic in Binjai City, North Sumatera

Household activities have the potential to produce greenhouse gas emissions. The government’s policy to work and study from home during the COVID-19 pandemic affects greenhouse gas emissions produced by household activities, starting from energy and waste and liquid waste produced, so it is necessary to carry out an emission inventory. The purpose of this study is to calculate greenhouse gas emissions (CO2 and CH4) from household activities in Binjai City during the COVID-19 pandemic and determine emission reduction scenarios that can be carried out in Binjai City. The calculation method used is based on the 2006 IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel in Climate Change) guidelines. CO2 emissions resulting from the use of LPG are 2025.80 tons CO2e/month, the use of fuel for daily transportation activities is 3484.84 tons CO2e/month, and electricity usage is 14956.66 Ton CO2e/month. CH4 emissions produced from domestic liquid waste are 417.14 tons CO2e/month, and household waste is 27.54 tons CO2e/month. The COVID-19 pandemic increases GHG emissions from household electricity consumption in Binjai City by ± 7% and reduces GHG emissions from fuel consumption by 3.5%.

Evaluation of Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Reservoirs: A Review

In order to evaluate the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from a reservoir or from several reservoirs in a country or a climatic zone, simpler or more complex models based on measurements and analyses of emissions presented in the literature were developed, which take into account one or more reservoir-specific parameters. The application of the models in the assessment of GHG emissions from a multipurpose reservoir gave values that are more or less close to the average values reported in the literature for the temperate zone reservoirs. This is explained by the fact that some models only consider emissions caused by impoundment and not degassing, spillway emissions, and downstream emissions, or those that use different calculation periods. The only model that calculates GHG emissions over the life cycle that occur pre-impoundment, post-impoundment, from unrelated anthropogenic sources and due to the reservoir construction is the model used by the G-res tool. In addition, this tool is best suited for multipurpose reservoirs because it allocates GHG emissions for each use, thus facilitating the correct reporting of emissions. The G-res tool used to calculate GHG emissions from the Stânca-Costești Multipurpose Reservoir shows that this is a sink of GHG with a net emission of −5 g CO2eq/m2/yr (without taking into account the emissions due to dam construction).

Current trends and key limitations of climate-related disclosure by Russian companies

Climate-related disclosure and reporting have become major topics of the discussion among the key players influencing business decisions in the past few years. The United Kingdom and other countries’ plans regarding mandatory climate-related disclosure for the major listed companies, investors’ enquires about CDP questionnaires to be filled and European Union actively promoting its carbon neutral plans influence Russian business community decisions. In order to comply with the latest trends and future demands it is critical to assess corporate carbon footprint correctly, especially for the most carbon intensive companies specialising in mining and steel production, which can be seriously affected by the forecasted EU Carbon Border Tax towards carbon intensive imported products. Although, currently there are some limitations which may misrepresent some of the Russian companies’ greenhouse gas emissions calculation results, and further decarbonisation initiatives. One of the key reasons is a lack of national methodological guidelines and emissions factors provided by the Russian ministries and research centres, which have to guide Russian companies in the field of regional-based emissions assessment. This article examines the current trends of climate-related disclosure based on the CDP scores of Russian companies and discusses the potential ways of improving the national methodological support in order to provide quality and credible data connected with the climate risk management and disclosure. The most important drawbacks were identified, such as the lack of methodological guidelines and emission factors for calculating direct greenhouse gas emissions (Scope 1), regional emissions factors for calculating indirect energy emissions (Scope 2) for the Russian Federation, as well as the lack of both methodological guidelines and emissions factors database for calculating other indirect emissions (Scope 3). Finally, the expected consequences of such methodological disadvantages were described, and the recommended steps to improve the effectiveness of this climate-related disclosure practice were proposed.

SRF에 함유된 바이오매스가 온실가스에 미치는 영향

This study investigated the biomass content of fluff type SRF(Solid refuse fuel) operated in B city and GHG(Greenhouse gas) emission were calculated and compared during incineration and landfill treatment. The results biomass content of SRF is 24.9 %~58.0 %, with an average of 42.6 %. As a result of calculating GHG emissions based on landfill and incineration, excluding non-biomass, it was calculated as 13,475.2 (t CO₂eq/yr) and 23,301.1 (t CO₂-eq/yr). When burning the biomass contained in SRF, it has the effect of reducing greenhouse gas emissions during landfill based on carbon neutrality. Therefore, it is effective to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by sorting and converting biodegradable wastes into resources.

Influence of Lining Design Parameters on the Greenhouse Gas Emissions of Chinese Highway Tunnel Construction

To realize low-carbon design for tunnel construction, the authors explored the relationship between tunnel design and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. This study proposed typical design models of Chinese highway tunnels based on the lining design specifications and engineering design cases. The research modified the GHG emission calculation method based on the standard quota system. The marginal GHG emissions caused by a change of design parameters of tunnel lining were determined. The results show that the emissions from shotcrete, concrete arch wall, system bolts, and steel frames are sensitive to the change of design parameters, while steel mesh is not. As the design thickness increases, the emissions of the concrete arch wall, inverted arch, and shotcrete increase approximately linearly. The emission distributions of system bolts and steel frames under different spacing are given. Under the same longitudinal spacing condition, the emission ratio of I18 and I16 steel frames is 1.197, and that of I16 and I14 steel frames is 1.316. By defining the marginal emissions caused by the change of design parameters, this study carried out basic work for highway tunnel low-carbon designs. The research is of strategic significance for achieving energy conservation and emission reduction in the tunnel industry.

Research on the sensitivity of parameters and calibrates DNDC model for calculating emissionsfrom paddy rice cultivation activities

This study estimates the sensitivity of parameters to serve the adjustment and construction of standard parameters in the Decomposition - Denitrification (DNDC) model when calculating greenhouse gas emissions from rice cultivation on alluvial, alkali, acid-sulfate, and bleached soils of Red river delta, Vietnam. The research results show that the following parameters: bulk density, clay fraction, microbial activity index, soil organic carbon (SOC), temperature, conductivity, fertilization of urea, and porosity have a high sensitivity for the calculation of CH4 emissions; the following parameters: pH, drainage efficiency, depth of water retention layer, field capacity, initial nitrate and ammonium concentrations at surface soil, and rainfall have low sensitivity and less influence for the calculation of CH4 emissions; the wilt moisture and salinity index have no effect on CH4 emissions. In case of N2O emissions, the following parameters: amount of manure, clay fraction, microbial activity index, pH, initial nitrate concentration at surface soil, bulk density, SOC, field capacity, porosity and depth of water retention layer have a high sensitivity and more influence to N2O emissions; the following parameters: drainage efficiency, conductivity, initial ammonium concentration at surface soil, temperature, fertilisation of urea and rainfall have low sensitivity and less influence to N2O emissions; the wilting point and soil salinity index have no effect on N2O emissions. The results of model calibration show a good correlation between observed and simulated values in both spring and summer crops in 2018. The R2 of the spring and summer crops reach 0.86 and 0.79, the Nash-Sutclitffe efficiency index reaches 0.82 and 0.77 for CH4 emission; meanwhile, for N2O emission, these values are 0.62, 0.69, and 0.76, respectively. The study also found a model calibration parameter used to calculate greenhouse gas emissions from rice cultivation on alluvial, alkali, acid-sulfate, and bleached soils.

Greenhouse Gas Emissions of Stationary Battery Installations in Two Renewable Energy Projects

The goal to decrease greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions is spurring interest in renewable energy systems from time-varying sources (e.g., photovoltaics, wind) and these can require batteries to help load balancing. However, the batteries themselves add additional GHG emissions to the electricity system in all its life cycle phases. This article begins by investigating the GHG emissions for the manufacturing of two stationary lithium-ion batteries, comparing production in Europe, US and China. Next, we analyze how the installation and operation of these batteries change the GHG emissions of the electricity supply in two pilot sites. Life cycle assessment is used for GHG emissions calculation. The regional comparison on GHG emissions of battery manufacturing shows that primary aluminum, cathode paste and battery cell production are the principal components of the GHG emissions of battery manufacturing. Regional variations are linked mainly to high grid electricity demand and regional changes in the electricity mixes, resulting in base values of 77 kg CO2-eq/kWh to 153 kg CO2-eq/kWh battery capacity. The assessment of two pilot sites shows that the implementation of batteries can lead to GHG emission savings of up to 77%, if their operation enables an increase in renewable energy sources in the electricity system.

The mitigation strategy for reducing greenhouse gas emissions from household activities in Medan city

The activities of several sectors cause an increase in the amount of greenhouse gas emissions. Household activities also produce greenhouse gas emissions, mainly from cooking, electricity use, solid waste, and wastewater. The dominant greenhouse gas emissions from household activities are CO2, CH4, and N2O. This study aims to inventory greenhouse gas emissions from household activities in Medan City and determine several mitigation scenarios in reducing greenhouse gas emissions from household activities. The method used in calculating greenhouse gas emissions is the IPCC method. The results of an inventory of GHG emissions from household activities in Medan City for energy consumption (LPG and electricity) are 1.16 million tons CO2e/year, household solid waste is 36801.5 tons CO2e/year, and household wastewater is 198723.12 tons CO2e/year. The scenario of replacing LPG with an induction stove can reduce GHG emissions by an average of 21.08%, the design of using solar panels on the roof can reduce GHG emissions by an average of 30.19%, the composting scenario can reduce GHG emissions by an average of 0.38% and utilization CH4 from household wastewater as electrical energy can reduce GHG emissions by 1.23%.

Calculation of greenhouse gas emissions for a carbon recycling system using mineral carbon capture and utilization technology in the cement industry

Cement is widely produced and used. Cement production consumes a significant amount of energy and natural resources, and it accounts for approximately 7% of man-made greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in CO2-equivalents globally. The cement industry is continually conducting research and development into energy conserving and low-carbon technologies to reduce CO2 emissions. Furthermore, the industry will be at the heart of a carbon recycling system along cement and concrete value chain using newly developed mineral carbon capture and utilization (MCC&U) technology to reduce CO2 emissions substantially during clinker and/or cement production. This paper provides fundamental calculations for the determination of CO2 emissions from the MCC&U technology in the cement industry, which will contribute to the calculation of GHG inventories and life cycle assessments of the system. Demonstration experiments were conducted to develop an accounting formula and clearly determine CO2 emissions for recarbonate utilization as a cement raw material.

GHG Emissions Assessment of Civil Construction Waste Disposal and Transportation Process in the Eastern Amazon

The urbanization process represented by an increased supply of housing and transport infrastructure has taken place at an accelerated rate in several regions of Brazil, especially in the metropolitan areas of the Brazilian Amazon. Despite the existence of environmental policies that guide the proper disposal of civil construction waste (CCW) in Brazil, the impacts of these policies are still negligible, pointing to the need to establish other metrics such as the measurement of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in CO2eq associated with civil construction waste. This work aims to evaluate, in the second-largest city in the Brazilian Amazon, the environmental impact generated by the transportation of CCW to disposal sites, having as indicators the volume of this waste and the CO2 emissions produced during a whole year. A literature review on life cycle carbon emissions assessment in building construction and CO2 emissions in transportation are provided to establish the background of the research methodology. Data collection was carried out by searching large generators of construction waste, the companies responsible for transporting construction waste, and the types of vehicles used. Calculation of GHG emissions from CCW transportation was based on the method described in the 2006 IPCC Guidelines. The study identified a volume of waste of around 1244 m3/month, with a generation of 40,440 kgCO2/year, only from small and large generators. Besides the damage identified in this study, there is also the dumping of CCW into urban streams in the city which is causing negative impacts on sanitation and drainage systems. The results point to the need to strengthen local policies to mitigate the impacts of the existing CCW to contribute to a more sustainable city.

A parsimonious model for calculating the greenhouse gas emissions of miscanthus cultivation using current commercial practice in the United Kingdom

AbstractLife cycle assessment (LCA) is a widely recognized tool for the assessment of the potential environmental impacts associated with the life cycle of a product or service. The environmental impact category most commonly quantified in LCAs is global warming potential, a measure of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. For agricultural products such as miscanthus, the creation of an inventory can be labour‐intensive and is context‐specific. This impairs the transfer of results to comparable but not necessarily similar situations. Farmers and small‐ and medium‐sized enterprises cannot easily dedicate resources for this purpose (in particular when using marginal land) and often lack the expertise to do so. Simplified LCA models could offer a promising solution to this problem. They are simplified versions of more complex models that require only a few critical parameters to calculate representative results. This study develops such a model for the computation of GHG emissions associated with commercial miscanthus cultivation. The model focuses on rhizome‐based propagation and the indirect harvesting method (cutting to swath, swathing, baling). A parametric life cycle inventory (LCI) was established and used to identify the most influential parameters by means of a global sensitivity analysis (GSA). A simplified model for calculating GHG emissions associated with miscanthus cultivation was developed by fixing input parameters with a low relevance at their median impact values. Six of 38 parameters were identified as relevant parameters: soil carbon sequestration, harvestable yield, duration of cultivation period, quantities of nitrogen and potassium fertilizer applied, and distance between field and customer. The simplified model allows practitioners an easy assessment of the GHG emissions associated with the production and supply of miscanthus. It thus provides a wider audience facilitated access to LCA knowledge and promotes its use as a management and reporting tool in bio‐based industries.

Framework for Greenhouse Gas Emissions Calculations in the Context of Road Freight Transport for the Automotive Industry

The topic of greenhouse gas emissions calculations in the context of freight transport is very current. This topic is very interesting for many stakeholders, such as companies, suppliers, employees, customers, residents, etc. The automotive industry is a major producer of greenhouse gas emissions from logistic processes. Due to this fact, it is necessary to search for and create frameworks for the calculation of greenhouse gas emissions in this sector. The requirements for the calculation of greenhouse gas emissions from road freight transport in the automotive industry were identified using semi-structured interviews. Available emission freight calculators were analyzed using the content and comparative analysis. The proposed frameworks for greenhouse gas emissions calculations in the context of road freight transport of material and finished manufactured passenger cars for the automotive industry were applied in the form of an interpretative case study. The main result of the article is the proposal of the frameworks for greenhouse gas (carbon and sulfur dioxide) emissions calculations in the context of road freight transport of the material and finished manufactured passenger cars for the automotive industry. The proposed frameworks were applied and verified. The use of the proposed frameworks can be expected in logistic planning and decision-making.

작기 중 물관리를 실시한 휴경기 논에서의 온실가스 배출 특성 조사 : 순 지구온난화지수 산정(net GWP)

Approximately 51% of the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions generated by the agricultural sector in Korea are emitted from rice fields. Despite the extended fallow season, the calculation of GHG emissions from rice fields has been limited to rice cropping season. In this study, we sought to provide information on GHG emission considering the carbon budget in the fallow season. To compare the influence of water management during cropping season and how it affects the fallow season, two different treatments were examined, continuously flooded (CF-fallow) and intermittent drainage (ID-fallow). The emission rates of methane (CH₄), nitrous oxide (N₂O), and carbon dioxide (CO₂) were monitored using the closed chamber method. Changes in soil carbon were estimated using the net ecosystem carbon budget (NECB) method and the net global warming potential (GWP) calculated. Seasonal CH₄ and N₂O emissions were not significantly different between treatments, but the seasonal CO₂ emission for CF-fallow was significantly higher than that of ID-fallow. The net GWP was 5062 ㎏ CO₂-eq. haSUP-1/SUP for CF-fallow and 4433 ㎏ CO₂-eq. haSUP-1/SUP for ID-fallow. Approximately 77% of the calculated net GWP value was affected by the NECB value, followed by 22 ~ 23% affected by N₂O emission. In contrast, the influence of methane on net GWP was less than 1%, suggesting little effect on GHG emissions. In order to reduce GHG emissions during the fallow season in rice paddies, carbon enhancement through the input of carbon sources into the soil should be employed. However, since there are concerns about increased CH₄ emission from decomposing organic material during the cropping season, additional research on appropriate organic material sources and application methods should be conducted.

The Significance of Scope 3 GHG Emissions in Construction Projects in Korea: Using EIA and LCA

In Korea, a greenhouse gas (GHG) environmental impact assessment (EIA) has been conducting since 2012, which sets the evaluation procedures and methods for GHG items during the EIA. However, the current EIA on GHG emissions can support wrong decision-making because the evaluation does not consider Scope 3 GHG emissions. Accordingly, this study proposed the life cycle EIA (LCEIA) method to identify changes in GHG emissions that need to be managed by considering Scope 3 GHG emissions in construction projects. The LCEIA method incorporates life cycle CO2 (LCCO2) including Scope 1, Scope, and Scope 3 GHG emissions using the concept of life cycle assessment (LCA) into the scoping step of the EIA process. The case study was conducted using existing EIA on GHG emission and LCEIA methodology for a development project in Gwangyang City. Scenario 1 is defined as an approach that calculates GHG emissions using the existing EIA method, and scenario 2 is also defined as a process using the LCEIA method. Results reveal that Scenario 2, including Scope 3 GHG emissions, had 46.4−51.2% more GHG emissions than Scenario 1. Sensitivity analysis for electricity and liquefied natural gas (LNG) density was also performed. Although the change in the carbon emission factor of electricity had a slightly sensitive effect on the research results, the LNG density was found to be less sensitive. This study believes the importance of switching to an EIA reflecting life cycle carbon dioxide (LCCO2) to calculate the exact amount of GHG emissions for construction work.

A quantitative assessment of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from conventional and modular construction: A case of developing country

Building construction serves a vital purpose from a social and economic perspective by meeting the housing needs of society and contributing to the economic growth of a country. However, from an environmental perspective, this sector contributes negatively by releasing tons of greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) in the atmosphere, which consequently gives rise to other environmental hazards such as global warming and ozone depletion. The use of off-site modular construction practices in developed countries is increasing due to its environmental benefits over conventional cast-in-situ method. However, the environmental performance of a construction method may vary across various geographical regions, which is why environmental assessment of construction methods specific to a region is required. This study provides a calculation of GHG emissions in modular and conventional construction methods utilized in Pakistan, considering two single-family single-storey buildings with similar characteristics. The study also provides recommendations to homebuilders for the improvements in low-performance areas in both modular and conventional building methods. The results of the study show that modular building accounts for a total of 3449.73 kgCO2-equivalent GHG emissions whereas conventional building resulted in a total of 6501.91 kgCO2-equivalent GHG emissions. Modular building results in a reduction of 3052.19 kgCO2-equivalent GHG emissions (46.9%) as compared to a conventional site-built building. This implies that the modular construction method is a more environmentally viable option than conventional construction, which needs to be adopted on a large scale to reduce GHG emissions.

Tillage systems as a function of greenhouse gas (GHG) emission and fuel consumption mitigation.

In order to investigate the possibility of reducing GHG in winter wheat production, field trial was set up in a 3-year experiment (VS) with four different tillage systems (TS) and three N fertilization norms (FN). The tillage systems were CT-conventional tillage, DT-disk harrowing, LT-soil loosening, and NT-no tillage system. N fertilization norms were set to 120, 150 and 180kgha-1. Fuel consumption was measured with three-channel valve, and total value of consumption was calculated on total machinery passes according to technological map. Calculation of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from winter wheat production were done by BioGrace model (version 4d 2015). GHG emission per ton of yearly raw material was calculated from fertilizers (production and field emissions), seed, plant protection and diesel usage, so the result was expressed in kg CO2eq ha-1 per year. The main properties of research (TS, FN and VS) are showing statistical significance on total GHG emission from winter wheat production. The largest GHG emission had LT tillage system with 261.89kg CO2eq ha-1 from fuel emission and 2919.22kg CO2eq ha-1 in total. This tillage system also had highest yield of 7.78tha-1. The lowest yield was observed at NT system (6.92tha-1), also with the lowest GHG emission from fuel consumption and total production (fuel 118.30 and total 2685.94kg CO2eq ha-1). Reduced tillage system such as DT can significantly reduce GHG emissions from diesel consumption without having an impact on wheat yield. This study suggests that DT, primarily, and NT can be recommended as convenient agricultural practices conducive to reconstruct an optimal balance between GHG emissions, yields, and N excesses.

Inventory of greenhouse gas emissions and removals in Kaluga region

Climate change, namely global warming, remains at the forefront of the global environmental debate. At present, the international Paris Agreement, which aims to maintain the average temperature of the planet, is in force. The Russian Federation develops, annually updates, publishes and provides a national inventory of anthropogenic emissions and removals by sinks of all greenhouse gases. Each region shall annually conduct an inventory of greenhouse gas emissions and removals on its territory. According to international recommendations and methods for estimating greenhouse gas emissions and removals, the base year should be 1990, because then it becomes possible to carry out an analysis for a multi-year period. Different methodological bases and instructions of the Russian Ministry of Natural Resources are used to estimate GHG emissions and removals. Inventory of greenhouse gas emissions and removals in Kaluga region for the period 1990, 2012-2017 was conducted by JSC "Research Institute of Atmosphere", and for 2018 – LLC Ecoanalitika. The amount of absorbed greenhouse gases was considered for such land categories as forest land, arable land, fodder land, lands of settlements and special purpose lands. GHG emissions were estimated by the sectors "Energy" (Section I), "Industrial Processes and Product Use" (PIP) (Section II), "Agriculture" (Section III) and "Waste" (Section IV). The calculation of greenhouse gas emissions may be of varying complexity. The higher the level of complexity, the more accurate the results. Presented data for 1990, 2012-2018 show that GHG emissions excluding absorption increased by 5 per cent, while emissions excluding absorption decreased by 38 per cent. The presented chart shows that the largest amount of emissions is in the Energy Sector. The results of the assessment of GHG emissions and removals should be used in planning the development of the annual inventory.

Forest fires and carbon emission release in semi-arid regions of Indonesia: the evidence from medium resolution of satellite imagery

Forest fires are one of the causes of forest degradation and deforestation in Indonesia. Tropical savanna forests are one of the forest ecosystems found in the Indonesian region with a semi-arid climate type prone to drought and fire. Forest fires contribute to the release of greenhouse gas emissions into the atmosphere. The calculation method to estimate the burnt area is still an obstacle in calculating greenhouse gas emissions due to forest fires. This research aims to assess the burnt area in tropical savanna forest cover type using medium resolution satellite imagery data by utilizing the Normalized Burn Ratio index in four villages in East Sumba Regency and estimating greenhouse gas emissions these activities. The results showed that the NBR method does not produce an estimate of the burned area with a fair degree of accuracy because the characteristic of channel 7 (SWIR) is sensitive to vegetation moisture content. The savanna forest cover type is the type of land cover identified as the most dominant burned area. It produces the highest greenhouse gas emissions compared to other land cover types.

Environmental impacts assessment for Australian buildings: thermal resistance and environmental impacts relationship

Selecting suitable construction designs for efficient energy management and moderating greenhouse gas emissions regarding to a construction project's life-cycle of are typically demanding to designers in the fight with climate change across the global. Scientists are striving to develop building optimization models so that strategies are ably devised to moderate energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions simultaneously. An inclusive greenhouse gas emissions valuation model is established to utilise several types of buildings envelop, which is adhered to the National Construction Building Code of Australia - energy efficiency requirement. The extracted results are exported from GaBi version 8.1 and consolidated by Visual Basic in Microsoft Excel to calculate greenhouse gas emissions amount in regard to building's energy consumption in 50 years. Accordingly, Credit 15A which is one of five pathways in the category: Green-Star's greenhouse gas emissions reduction (Green-Star is the rating tool to enhance a project's sustainability during its life-cycle) will be used to assess by selecting the wall structures following the guidance in the Insulation Council of Australia and New Zealand (2014) handbook. With the model, designers and planners probably apply the optimum envelope structure types with the relevant R-value options for their design.