Calchaqui Valleys Research Articles

The Early Eocene Climatic Optimum at the Lower Section of the Lumbrera Formation (Ypresian, Salta Province, Northwestern Argentina): Origin and Early Diversification of the Cingulata

Recently, the basal beds of the lower section of the Lumbrera Formation have been referred to the early Eocene (Ypresian) based on the identification of a succession of hyperthermal events globally dated between 52 and 55 Ma. Nevertheless, this section have also been referred to the middle Eocene (Lutetian) based on the ‘evolutionary stage’ of its fossil mammals. In this contribution, we present a new 238U-206Pb isochron age (46.2 Ma) obtained from samples taken on various independent points across paleosol and matrix positioned at the top of the lower section of the Lumbrera Formation. The new age is consistent with the hyperthermal scheme and constrains the deposition of the lower section of the Lumbrera Fm. between 55–46.2 Ma. In this new geochronological framework, we present one of the most ancient cingulate assemblages from America, recorded during the early Eocene hyperthermal. The specimens involved were recovered from the lowest levels of the lower section of the Lumbrera Formation at Los Cardones National Park, Calchaqui Valleys, Salta Province, Argentina. This cingulate assemblage is formed by the armadillos Pucatherium parvum, a species widely distributed in the Eocene of northwestern Argentina and a new taxon, Noatherium emilioi, gen. et sp. nov. In this new geochronological framework, the taxonomic composition and morphological variations observed in the two species described here and their probably contemporaneous Riostegotherium yanei from the Itaborai basin (Brazil) support an early diversification of the Cingulata during the Paleocene, and reinforce an intertropical origin for the group.

Científicos vs. huaqueros. Responsabilidad y participación en la competencia comercial de piezas arqueológicas calchaquíes, a fines del siglo XIX

En este artículo analizo el comercio de piezas arqueológicas de los valles Calchaquíes (Noroeste Argentino/NOA) a fines del siglo XIX, como una práctica compartida por distintos actores que modificó el sentido y los objetivos del huaqueo tradicional de la zona, a la vez que propició el veloz desarrollo de un mercado de antigüedades. Planteo que esto respondió a la demanda de los científicos e instituciones para la formación de colecciones, aunque rápidamente se convirtió en una amenaza para los mismos, especialmente por el accionar de huaqueros a gran escala. Ante este avance -y aunque en los hechos sostuvieran activamente la competencia- los arqueólogos sostuvieron un distanciamiento discursivo “purificador” respecto de las prácticas comerciales, que al mismo tiempo sirvió para invisibilizar su propia responsabilidad en el proceso.

Colecciones antiguas, miradas actuales. Aportes del estudio de la colección de La Paya en el Museo de Antropología y Etnografía ?Pedro El Grande? (MAE-RAS) de San Petersburgo, Rusia

A comienzos del siglo XX, J. B. Ambrosetti obtuvo mediante excavaciones en La Paya (valle Calchaquí, Provincia de Salta) una de las colecciones de objetos arqueológicos de mayor envergadura de Argentina, la cual se convirtió en una de las colecciones fundacionales del Museo Etnográfico ?J. B. Ambrosetti? de Buenos Aires. En aquella época, algunas partes de la colección fueron canjeadas con distintos museos del mundo, entre ellos el Museo de Antropología y Etnografía ?Pedro El Grande? (MAE-RAS) de San Petersburgo, Rusia, en 1909. A partir de los estudios que desarrollamos sobre los materiales depositados en el MAE-RAS y la documentación de archivo en ambos museos, fue posible clarificar la composición actual y las características de esta porción de la colección de La Paya. A su vez, nos permitió desarrollar análisis tecnológicos y estilísticos del conjunto cerámico que aportan al conocimiento de las sociedades de los últimos siglos prehispánicos del valle Calchaquí. Consideramos que el re-estudio de colecciones antiguas y la recuperación de información sobre objetos y contextos, a veces muy poco conocidos, resulta de gran relevancia para entender su aporte a la construcción de narrativas sobre el pasado, para la revalorización de colecciones y para su apropiación social.

Los metales de la colección Zavaleta provenientes del departamento de Molinos, Salta, y su aporte al conocimiento de la secuencia de producción metalúrgica en las quebradas altas del Valle Calchaquí

Este trabajo presenta el estudio de piezas de metal provenientes de las colecciones depositadas en el Museo Etnográfico J. B. Ambrosetti (FFyL, Universidad de Buenos Aires) y en el Museo Arqueológico Eduardo Casanova (Tilcara) (FFyL, Universidad de Buenos Aires), que fueran recolectadas por Manuel Zavaleta hacia fines del siglo XIX mediante excavaciones no sistemáticas en Tacuil (departamento Molinos, Salta), y en otras localidades de la región como el valle de Luracatao, la localidad de Molinos y Colomé en el valle Calchaquí. Se suman, asimismo, datos de piezas del mismo coleccionista que se encuentran en diferentes museos internacionales, a los cuales accedimos mediante publicaciones, aportes de otros investigadores e información disponible en la web de dichas instituciones. Toda esta información es puesta en diálogo con bibliografía disponible sobre la metalurgia de la región y especialmente con los resultados de la investigación que actualmente desarrollamos, en un conjunto arquitectónico de estructuras rectangulares ubicado sobre la terraza del rio Blanco a los pies del farallón del Pukara de Tacuil, donde hallamos las primeras evidencias de producción metalúrgica durante el período Tardío-Inca (siglos X al XVI) en las quebradas altas del valle Calchaquí medio. En este sentido, mientras que las prospecciones y excavaciones de este sector del sitio ofrecieron evidencias de fundición de cobre por medio del uso de crisoles, elaboración de aleación de cobre y estaño y de objetos metálicos de cobre y bronce estañífero a partir del vaciado en moldes, no se recuperaron piezas completas. El estudio de la colección Zavaleta de este sitio nos permitió observar que objetos de similares características a los que pudieron haber sido confeccionados en el lugar formaron parte de los ajuares de las tumbas identificadas en Tacuil y sitios asociados. De este modo, mientras la colección aporta nuevos datos a la secuencia de producción sugerida desde la evidencia de campo, la importancia de los hallazgos realizados en excavaciones sistemáticas nos permite interpretar las piezas de museo, carentes de información contextual.

Irrigation canals from the Calchaqui valley (province of Salta, Argentina)

The archaeological site of Las Pailas, located in the north of the Calchaquí valley (province of Salta, Argentina), is one of the largest agricultural areas developed in the region during the Late Period (900–1430 CE) and the Inca Period (1430–1530 CE). The site consists of a residential area and an extensive area of cultivated land crisscrossed by a dense network of canals, both with and without stone lining, used for irrigation of the fields.This paper presents the results of the topographic contour and architectural mapping of the lined canals, located in a sector of the archaeological site. The canals have stone lining on their walls and ceilings, and most of them are below ground surface, covered by a layer of sediment. Larger and smaller canals distributed water from river intakes to cultivated fields. This required the development of a technical knowledge that included the control of slopes, the management of water flow velocities and discharge values, and the covering of pipes to avoid sediment accumulation and clogging. The analysis of the density of the canals suggests that the irrigation of the fields was a task of great importance for pre-Hispanic peasants.

Nuevos datos sobre las Quebradas altas del Calchaquí medio, Salta, noroeste de Argentina (NOA). Reproducción local entre los siglos XI a XV

Se ha propuesto para el noroeste de Argentina, entre el 1000 y 1400 AD, un estado de fragmentación política, situaciones de conflicto y la emergencia de jerarquías siendo una de las causas de esta situación los cambios climáticos que ocurrieron en los Andes alrededor del siglo XIII. La información arqueológica de las quebradas altas del valle Calchaquí medio, en la actual provincia de Salta, entre los siglos XI y XVII, nos permiten plantear la hipótesis de la continuidad en la ocupación de estos espacios siguiendo prácticas y lógicas de tiempos prehispánicos, que estuvieron vinculadas a la subsistencia y reproducción social, tales como el manejo estacional y altitudinal agrícola-ganadero por parte de las poblaciones locales. Nuestro objetivo es dar a conocer resultados de las investigaciones en las quebradas altas del valle Calchaquí intentando entender cómo podría haber sido la dinámica poblacional entre los siglos XI y XV a partir de información arqueológica .

Más allá de la Puna: Artefactos “Saladillo” del Valle Calchaquí (Cachi, Salta, Argentina) como evidencia de ocupaciones humanas del Holoceno Medio

Se presenta el análisis de atributos cualitativos y cuantitativos de un conjunto de artefactos Saladillo recuperado en el sector Norte del valle Calchaquí, el cual se encuentra disponible en el Museo Arqueológico de Cachi, provincia de Salta (Argentina) (2500 msnm). El análisis indica similitudes notorias entre el conjunto analizado y aquellos procedentes de la puna de Jujuy y Salta (>3000 msnm). Esto conduce a pensar en la presencia de ocupaciones humanas correspondientes al segmento de finales del Holoceno medio en el sector norte del valle Calchaquí, sobre la base de los fechados absolutos obtenidos en la puna para esta clase de artefacto. A su vez, partiendo de esta idea, pueden sugerirse procesos culturales que habrían posibilitado la distribución de estos artefactos tanto en puna como en valles, considerando desplazamientos de grupos humanos así como transmisión de información. Estas ideas constituyen un punto de partida para guiar la investigación sobre poblaciones humanas anteriores a los ca. 3000 AP en sectores altitudinales más allá de la puna. Se destaca la relevancia de pensar temáticas de investigación en materia de “cazadores recolectores” que integren el amplio espacio del Noroeste Argentino.

Plazas, "ushnus" y experiencias rituales en el valle calchaquí norte durante la ocupación inka

This paper discusses how the Inkas used the architecture and the surrounding topography of their settlements to manipulate peoples` somatic experiences during public ceremonial events. Therefore, we discuss the material and spatial arrangements of four Inka settlements located in the North Calchaqui Valley (Salta Province, Argentina); two high altitude settlements located in the Nevados de Cachi area and two sites located in the northern and southern areas of this portion of the valley. We will focus on the movements and views encouraged by the location and spatial configuration of certain buildings and traits within these sites. We will emphasize the visual and physical accessibility of congregation spaces, the sights offered by their architecture and layout design, and the presence of other devices intimately related with Andean ceremonialism such as platforms, channels, wank’as , and monoliths. We will argue that the Inkas not only sought to clearly differentiate themselves from the locals, but also to make clear their distinctive proficiency and privileged position to communicate with certain non-human entities of the Andean landscape.

VACHELLIA Y PARASENEGALIA (LEGUMINOSAE, MIMOSOIDEAE) DE LOS VALLES CALCHAQUÍES DE SALTA, ARGENTINA

As part of an integral review of the native species of the Calchaqui Valleys of Salta, Argentina, descriptions of Vachellia aroma, V. caven, and Parasenegalia visco are presented, along with a key for the species, comments about uses, and a list of representative specimens. In this study these genera segregated from Acacia s.l. are recognized and used for the first time for the Flora of Argentina.

Efecto de la densidad de siembra sobre la actividad fotosintética en Chenopodium quinoa var. CICA (“quínoa”) en el Noroeste Argentino.

El cultivo de la quinoa para la obtención de granos para la alimentación humana ha comenzado a extenderse en la región de los Valles Calchaquíes (Tucumán, Argentina) por arriba de los 2.000 m snm. Tratándose de un cultivo nuevo para dicha región son necesarios los estudios ecofisiológicos y agronómicos para lograr un manejo adecuado de esta nueva alternativa productiva. En este estudio se analiza el efecto de la densidad de siembra sobre la respuesta fotosintética frente a diferentes densidades de flujo fotosintético de fotones (DFFF) estableciéndose los valores de asimilación máxima (A max), punto de saturación lumínica (PSL), punto de compensación lumínica (PCL), eficiencia fotosintética (Ø CO2 ) y respiración nocturna (R n ). Por otro lado, se roporcionan datos relacionados con la asimilación fotosintética neta (A n ), conductancia estomática (g s ), transpiración foliar (T r ), concentración interna de CO 2 (C i ), capacidad de carboxilación (A n /C i ) y eficiencia intrínseca en el uso del agua (EUA i ). Asimismo se brindan datos sobre el contenido de pigmentos fotosintéticos (clorofilas y carotenoides) y otros compuestos protectores (que absorben a los 305 nm). Este estudio demuestra que los parámetros del intercambio de gases están directamente correlacionados con la morfología, anatomía foliar y rendimiento en granos y que la densidad de siembra tiene un efecto directo sobre ellos.

Host-Feeding Sources and Infection With Trypanosoma cruzi of Triatoma infestans and Triatoma eratyrusiformis (Hemiptera: Reduviidae) From the Calchaqui Valleys in Northwestern Argentina.

We assessed the prevalence of infection with Trypanosoma cruzi, parasite genotypes (discrete typing units, DTUs), and the host-feeding sources of domestic and peridomestic Triatoma infestans Klug and Triatoma eratyrusiformis Del Ponte in eight rural communities of the subandean Calchaqui valleys in northwestern Argentina. We sought to analyze their epidemiological role in the context of routine vector surveillance and control actions. Infection with T. cruzi was determined by optic microscopy or polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification of the hypervariable region of kinetoplast DNA minicircles. Parasite genotypes were identified through a multi PCR-based strategy. Bloodmeal contents were tested with a direct ELISA assay against nine antisera. Human sleeping quarters (domiciles) and peridomestic dry-shrub fences concentrated most of the T. infestans and T. eratyrusiformis infected with T. cruzi, respectively. The most frequent host-feeding sources of T. infestans were chickens (73.1%) in peridomiciles and humans (73.3%) in domiciles, whereas T. eratyrusiformis fed more often on cavid rodents (92.6%), which thrived in the dry-shrub fences. The main T. cruzi DTU identified in both vectors was T. cruzi I (TcI). Triatoma eratyrusiformis was implicated in the local circulation of TcI among cavies and perhaps mice, but infection with other typically domestic DTUs (TcVI and TcII/TcV/TcVI) indicated overlap between (peri)domestic transmission cycles in both vector species. Because dry-shrub fences were not targeted for routine insecticide spraying, they may act as sources of (peri)domestic reinfestation. Triatoma eratyrusiformis is an emergent secondary vector of T. cruzi and plays a significant role in the local transmission of T. cruzi.

Aporte del análisis de colecciones a las modalidades de aprovisionamiento: El caso de los sitios cantera-taller del Valle de Yocavil (Noroeste Argentino) [Contribution to the analysis of collection procurement mechanisms

Contribution to the analysis of collection procurement mechanisms: The case of the quarry workshop sites of Yocavil Valley (Northwest Argentina) In this paper we propose to analyze and compare four collections of artifacts, which come from surface sites located south of the Calchaquies Valleys. The quarry-workshop sites from Ampajango, El Bordo and Los Zazos have been previously studied and some of its parts are in the Museum of Natural Sciences of the National University of La Plata and in the Museum of Anthropology of the National University of Rosario, both in Argentina. These sites had been characterized as the first hunter-gatherer occupations in the valley of Yocavil (Cigliano 1964; 1968), mainly conformed by bifaces, scrapers and cores, most of them covered by a particular rock coating (rock varnish), which is desert varnish. In this paper we offer a revision and a new interpretation of such artifact assemblages. The questions that guide our work are: Will a new analysis of these collections allow us to observe complex processes such as reuse-recycling? What role did these spaces have at a regional level in sourcing decisions and exploitation of raw materials? By looking at the collections we have detected two problems. First, a greater presence of desert varnish on the parts collected during our fieldwork (Carbonelli 2013) in comparison with the ones in the above named collections. This variable is particularly relevant because a greater number of artifacts with varnish present are more likely to reveal cases of reuse-recycling; that is to say temporal difference between different sets of flaked stone. To solve this problem, we conducted a Chi 2 analysis in order to test the null hypothesis of the absence of a difference between the proportions of artifacts with varnish from our collections and museum collections. Secondly, we detected an existing imbalance between the high frequency of knapping tools in detriment of debitage and cores in museum collections. In order to quantitatively address the diversity of each set, we compared the typological classes of each of the matching sets. Diversity is a way of measuring the variation since it describes attributes of a population composed of classes (attributes) that vary in frequency (wealth), which allows us to discuss structural issues of the sample. To explore the richness we use indicators that are not too sensitive to sample size, such as the Simpson Dominance Index and Eveness. From the methodological aspect, statistical analysis allowed us to recognize the biases that built the samples. The Chi 2 tests indicate to us that there is a lower proportion of artifacts with desert varnish in the collections than what would fit reality. This manifests mainly in the absence of cases of reuse-recycling, evident in the differences of varnish between flaked artifacts. Moreover, the analysis of diversity warns us that there is an over-representation of finished tool type artifacts in collections, which makes difficult the description of the production sequence. Based on these biases, through techno-morphological analysis we characterized the lithic production of quarry-workshop sites. Generally speaking, they present an expeditious technology comprises of amorphous cores and partial bifaces, which were then used as cores. Even in the case of bifaces, there was no great effort put into their production, since many of them were still in the process of being knapped. The presence of an informal component in sets are also denoted by the presence of cortex in most knapped artifacts resulting in sequences of short reductions, without achieving a complete knapping of both sides. This low knapping of the sets is explained if we combine these observations with the results of our survey of potential and effective sources of raw materials (Carbonelli 2012, 2013b). The pieces of the collections come from places close to areas of good to fair quality raw materials, so expeditious technology with a small holding of bifaces and cores is consistent.

Coleccionando miradas: aportes sobre la interpretación de los sitios de superficie de la “industria ampajanguense”

En este trabajo analizamos la tecnología lítica de los sitios cantera-taller Ampajango, Los Zazos y El Bordo localizados al sur de los valles Calchaquíes, a través del material proveniente de las colecciones del Museo de Antropología de Rosario y del Museo de Ciencias Naturales de La Plata. Mediante el análisis tecno-morfológico de las distintas clases tipológicas se obtuvo información sobre los procesos de producción lítica existentes en los sitios. Reconociendo la existencia de sesgos en la composición de las muestras, producto del contexto histórico de su formación, se observó recurrencia de artefactos bifaciales y procesos de reciclajes y modificaciones observados en bifaces, los cuales denotan la existencia de actividades de manufactura y uso no sincrónicas. A partir de estos datos se elaboró como hipótesis que estos sitios de superficie habrían sido utilizados como “stone tool caches”, es decir como espacios de almacenamiento de materia prima dentro del circuito de movilidad de estas sociedades cazadoras-recolectoras.

Evidencias paleoambientales y de producción lítica en la cantera taller Ampajango, Valle de Yocavil (Catamarca, Argentina)

In this paper we present new information on the paleoenvironmental context of southern Calchaquies Valleys, through the results of dating by varnish microlaminations over artifacts placed on the quarry-workshop of Ampajango (Catamarca province, Argentina). The obtained data points out two facts. Firstly, the existance of ten wet events, interspersed with arid events during the Holocene in the valley of Yocavil. Secondly, the difference of patina in one same device, which could be evidence of a reclamation process. This coupled with the existence of recycling and reuse in lithic artifacts, allows to consider the landscape as a mound, a natural and social construction at once.

Estudio etnográfico de la crianza y de la participación de los niños en comunidades rurales de los Valles Calchaquíes septentrionales (noroeste Argentino)*

Este artículo analiza varios aspectos emergentes de una investigación etnográfica acerca de la crianza y del desarrollo de los niños desde una perspectiva ecológica. Se enfoca en los resultados de un estudio etnográfico realizado en comunidades rurales de los Valles Calchaquíes (Salta, Noroeste Argentino) y basada en el uso de las técnicas propias de la etnografía. Tomando como referente el concepto de «nicho de desarrollo», se caracterizan los discursos y prácticas de crianza y cuidado de la salud de los niños (guaguas) en el marco de las actividades de subsistencia a escala doméstica. Por otro lado, se profundizan las transformaciones de estos discursos a través de las generaciones así como sus articulaciones y tensiones con diversos saberes y prácticas institucionales.

Falando a língua do inimigo: a solidão do missionário nas terras calchaquís

Este trabalho analisou um paradoxo: a sincronia entre a aquisicao tardia do idioma kakan pelos missionarios e o brutal desaparecimento da missao Calchaqui em meados dos anos 1660. Quando os jesuitas ja falavam o idioma, esse conhecimento ja nao tinha nenhuma utilidade, pela extincao da missao e deportacao de seus neofitos. Por sua vez, este paradoxo fez com que o estatuto de tal idioma, hoje inexistente, fosse investigado na economia linguistica colonial. De lingua veicular, terminou como o idioma exclusivo do inimigo, identificado como um territorio (os Valles Calchaquies), e como uma atitude rebelde. Sua extensao foi diminuindo conforme a colonizacao avancava, promovendo-se os idiomas de comunicacao colonial, particularmente o quechua. Por fim, a dispersao dos habitantes fora dos vales deixou aos missionarios um conhecimento que serviria apenas para propositos tecnicos: transmitir ordens a milicia dos calchaquies vencidos, alistados como indios amigos nas milicias da provincia.

Narrativas arqueológicas de momentos de contacto en los Valles Calchaquíes hasta mediados del siglo XX

We analyze several narratives written from the archeology field on the History of local societies in the Calchaqui valleys during the period of contact with the Spanish conquerors (1535-1665). We connect these narratives with their historical context and examine if the archaeological production expanded the incision that different official narratives created between pre-Hispanic past and Republican present in the area. We inquire on the narrative developed from the beginnings of archaeology to mid-twentieth century produc-tion to see how past is shaped through the materiality chosen as relevant and we relate it to the official historical narratives, those that have been promoted and used from entities that manage power apparatuses. We propose a narrative coherence between both groups and discuss the interrelationships between the scientific field of archeology and the broader political context.

Nutritional status and dietary habits of the population of the Calchaqui Valleys of Tucuman, Argentina

ObjectiveTo assess the nutritional status and dietary habits of the adult population of the Calchaqui Valleys of Tucuman. MethodsA cross-sectional nutritional survey that included one 24-h recall, a semiquantitative food-frequency questionnaire, and anthropometric measurements was conducted in a representative sample of 113 adult participants. Pregnant and lactating women were excluded. Overweight and obesity were assessed according to body mass index, and the percentage of individuals with cardiovascular risk according to waist circumference and waist-to-hip circumference ratio was determined. Dietary habits were described according to the mean nutrient and food intakes of men and women. ResultsMeans ± standard deviations for total energy intake of men and women were 1856 ± 859 and 1589 ± 799 kcal/d, respectively. The average body mass indices of men and women were 26.8 and 26.7 kg/m2, respectively. Thirty-seven percent of the population was overweight and 22.8% was obese, whereas 1.8% of the population was undernourished. Central adiposity was high (mean waist circumferences 99.8 and 87.3 cm in men and women, respectively). ConclusionsDespite the low average energy intake, the population under study showed a high prevalence of overweight and obesity and a high risk of cardiovascular disease according to the central adiposity values. These findings could be explained by the introduction of new high-energy foods and a sedentary lifestyle or the possibility that the biological characteristics of these individuals make them more predisposed to a rapid increase in adiposity.

Occurrence ofCeratitis capitataandAnastrepha fraterculus(Diptera: Tephritidae) on Cultivated, Exotic Fruit Species in the Highland Valleys of Tucuman in Northwest Argentina

ABSTRACT Fruits from 6 exotic, cultivated fruit species were collected in the Tafi and Calchaqui valleys between Jan 2000 and Jan 2002 to determine the occurrence of Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann) and Anastrepha fraterculus (Wiedemann) and the corresponding fruit infestation levels. The valleys are situated in the western semiarid highlands of Tucuman province (NW Argentina) and the altitude ranges from 1,800 to 2,014 m above sea level. The fruit species surveyed were Cydonia oblonga Miller, Malus domestica Borkh., Prunus armeniaca L., P. domestica L., P. persica (L.) Batsch, and Pyrus communis L. (Rosaceae). Out of a total of 2,129 puparia recovered from infested fruit, 2,112 (98.8%) were C. capitata and only 27 (1.2%) A. fraterculus. Ceratitis capitata was recovered from all fruit species and it was the dominant species. Anastrepha fraterculus was only recovered from C. oblonga, P. persica and P. domestica. All Prunus species and P. communis were the host plants that were infested most by C. capitata. T...

Los usos del sistema judicial, la retórica y la violencia en torno a un reclamo sobre tierras comunales. Amaicha del Valle, siglo XIX

Since the late colonial period and throughout the 19 th century, the indigenous people of the community of Amaicha del Valle led several lawsuits and deployed various strategies to defend their communal lands. The aim of this paper is to analyze, from an anthropological and historical perspective, the responses implemented by the community in the dispute with different actors (state, private, etc.). To this end, we use a series of unpublished documents from the Historic Archive of Tucuman, that refer to the conflict around the lands of Calchaqui valley. In general, we seek to characterize not only the socio-economic and ethnic dynamics experienced by the different indigenous peoples of the NOA during the 19th century and to provide new data to the discussions focused on national and provincial state formations. We also intend to understand the phenomenon of ethnic de-characterization on which the nation was built, thus framing the current ethnic re-emergence that has recently