C2 Substituent Research Articles

Synthesis and antibacterial properties of 3-amino-β-lactams bearing a heteroatom-containing C4 substituent.

The rise of antimicrobial resistance has spurred the search for innovative antibiotics, with monocyclic 3-amino-β-lactams - aztreonam standing out as key example - showing significant potential. In particular, C4-functionalized 3-amino-β-lactams have emerged as a promising subclass that can potentially improve the activity, stability and cellular permeability of the compounds. This review outlines various synthetic methodologies available for the construction of 3-amino-β-lactams bearing a heteroatom-containing substituent at C4, with the heteroatom connected to the ring system either directly or via a methylene bridge. Special attention is devoted to 3-amino-4-hydroxymethyl-β-lactams and 3-amino-4-acetoxy-β-lactams as versatile synthetic intermediates. Moreover, the effect of these C4 substituents on the biological activity of the corresponding 3-amino-β-lactams is discussed in detail. A better understanding of synthetic protocols and antibacterial properties related to this underexplored class of monocyclic 3-amino-β-lactams might contribute to address the current antibiotics problems we are facing more efficiently.

Switch of Five Contiguous Chiral Centers in the Synthesis of Both Enantiomers of Hajos-Parrish Ketone Analogs via Diphenylprolinol Silyl Ether-Mediated Domino Reaction.

Both enantiomers of functionalized Hajos-Parrish ketone (HPK) analogs were prepared with excellent diastereoselectivities and enantioselectivities using the same chiral catalyst under two slightly different conditions. In condition A, dioxane was used as the solvent with 3 equivalents of water. In condition B, acetonitrile was used as the solvent with 30 equivalents of water, followed by epimerization with a base in a one-pot. The reaction consisted of a domino reaction including a diphenylprolinol silyl ether-mediated asymmetric Michael reaction and an intramolecular Henry reaction. In the Michael reaction, depending on the solvent and water amounts, syn- and anti-isomers were selectively synthesized with excellent enantioselectivity, in which the absolute configuration at C5 (indanone numbering) was opposite. The subsequent Henry reaction was diastereoselective, in which the C5 substituent controlled the three chiral centers in a highly diastereoselective manner. The final base treatment in condition B caused epimerization, changing the configuration at C6. Switching more than two chiral centers with high enantioselectivity is extremely difficult using the same chiral catalyst; the present reaction is a very rare enantiodivergent reaction that switches five continuous chiral centers with high enantioselectivity.

Synthesis of Non‐canonical Tryptophan Variants via Rh‐catalyzed C−H Functionalization of Anilines

AbstractTryptophan and its non‐canonical variants play critical roles in pharmaceutical molecules and various enzymes. Facile access to this privileged class of amino acids from readily available building blocks remains a long‐standing challenge. Here, we report a regioselective synthesis of non‐canonical tryptophans bearing C4−C7 substituents via Rh‐catalyzed annulation between structurally diverse tert‐butyloxycarbonyl (Boc)‐protected anilines and alkynyl chlorides readily prepared from amino acid building blocks. This transformation harnesses Boc‐directed C−H metalation and demetalation to afford a wide range of C2‐unsubstituted indole products in a redox‐neutral fashion. This umpolung approach compared to the classic Larock indole synthesis offers a novel mechanism for heteroarene annulation and will be useful for the synthesis of natural products and drug molecules containing non‐canonical tryptophan residues in a highly regioselective manner.

Radical-Initiated Dearomative Annulation of Tryptamine-Derived Isocyanides: Selective Synthesis of CF3-Substituted β-Aza-spiroindolines and β-Carbolines.

A mild approach for synthesizing CF3-substituted β-aza-spiroindolines and β-carbolines from tryptamine-derived isocyanides via site-selective radical annulations has been reported. The crucial role of C2 substituents in the selective annulation process has been clarified. The approach shows good generality and practical applicability, highlighting its effectiveness and versatility.

Exploring C2 and N6 Substituent Effects on Truncated 4'-Thioadenosine Derivatives as Dual A2A and A3 Adenosine Receptor Ligands.

Based on high binding affinity of truncated 2-hexynyl-4'-thioadenosine (3 a) at both A2A adenosine receptor (AR) and A3 AR, we explored structure-activity relationship (SAR) of the C2-substitution by altering chain length of the 2-hexynyl moiety, thereby evaluating the hydrophobic pocket size. A series of truncated N6-substituted 4'-thioadenosine derivatives with C2-alkynyl substitution were successfully synthesized from D-mannose, using a palladium-catalyzed Sonogashira coupling reaction as the key step, whose structures were confirmed by the X-ray crystal structure of 4 h. As the size of the alkynyl group at the C2-position increased, the binding affinity improved; however, when the substituted group was larger than hexynyl, the binding affinity decreased. The introduction of a bulky hydrophobic group such as 3-halobenzyl group at the free N6-amino group decreased the binding affinity at hA2AAR. These results confirm our previous findings that a free amino group at N6-position and longer hydrophobic chain at C2-position are essential for hA2A AR binding affinity. The introduction of a bulky hydrophobic group at free N6-amino group maintained the binding affinity at hA3 AR. The binding mode of truncated 2-substituted-4'-thioadenosine derivatives to hA2A and hA3 AR were predicted by a molecular docking study.

B/Pd Synergistic Catalysis for the Decarboxylative Allylation of 2-(2-Azaaryl)acetic Acids.

We describe an allylation reaction between 2-(2-azaaryl)acetic acids and allylic electrophiles catalyzed synergistically by a dual system consisting of borinic acid and a Pd complex under mild conditions. The decarboxylative allylation proceeds via a boron-bound enamine intermediate, which then interacts with a π-allylpalladium intermediate from the allylic electrophile. High yields of diallylation products highlight the method's efficiency. Intriguingly, when using 2-(2-pyridyl)acetic acid with a C3 substituent on the pyridyl ring, the reaction exclusively yields monoallylation products.

Deciphering the role of FI catalyst’s C3 substituent on the non-isothermal crystallization kinetics of nascent disentangled UHMWPE

UH1 - UH4 were accessed using tetra-fluorinated phenoxy-imine catalysts (FI catalysts) with linear (allyl, n-propyl, 1-propenyl) or more steric demanding (isopropyl) C3 substituents ortho to the phenoxy-oxygen atom. To get a better understanding of the non-isothermal crystallization kinetics of these nascent ultra-high molecular weight polyethylenes (UHMWPEs), their thermo-rheological properties are investigated. Through the application of annealing-crystallization-melting thermal analysis and isoconversional method, it is verified that the samples are nascent disentangled UHMWPEs with higher crystallization rates compared to the commercial UHMWPE (CUH). The molar fraction of nascent entangled crystals and/or degree of supercooling have a significant influence on the non-isothermal crystallization kinetics of nascent disentangled UHMWPEs. Finally, under a lower supercooling, the electron-donating property and steric hindrance of C3 substituent strongly affect the synthesis and architecture of polyolefin which in turn has a specific non-isothermal crystallization kinetics.

Rotational Behavior about the N3-Pyridyl Bond in 3-(Pyridin-2-yl)quinazolin-4-one and 4-Thione Derivatives.

The rotational barriers about the N3-(2-pyridyl) bond in 2-iso-propyl-3-(pyridin-2-yl)quinazolin-4-one and the thione analogue were evaluated though VT-NMR measurement of a diastereotopic iso-propyl group followed by a line-shape simulation. In 3-(pyridin-2-yl)quinazoline-4-thione bearing a chiral center as the C2 substituent, the formation of dynamic diastereomers was detected by NMR. The rotational pathway about the N3-(2-pyridyl) bond and the stereochemistries of dynamic diastereomers were revealed through a computational study.

Gold-Catalyzed Regio- and Stereoselective Alkenylation of Quinoline N-Oxides with Allenamides.

A gold-catalyzed cycloaddition/ring opening of allenamides with quinoline N-oxides has been developed, which provides C2-alkenylated quinolines with high E selectivity in moderate to high yields. It is noted that quinoline N-oxides with a C8 or C7 substituent are crucial for this catalytic reaction.

Distinguishing Isomeric Cyclobutane Thymidine Dimers by Ion Mobility and Tandem Mass Spectrometry.

Irradiation of the major conformation of duplex DNA found in cells (B form) produces cyclobutane pyrimidine dimers (CPDs) from adjacent pyrimidines in a head-to-head orientation (syn) with the C5 substituents in a cis stereochemistry. These CPDs have crucial implications in skin cancer. Irradiation of G-quadruplexes and other non-B DNA conformations in vitro produces, however, CPDs between nonadjacent pyrimidines in nearby loops with syn and head-to-tail orientations (anti) with both cis and trans stereochemistry to yield a mixture of six possible isomers of the T=T dimer. This outcome is further complicated by formation of mixtures of nonadjacent CPDs of C=T, T=C, and C=C, and successful analysis depends on development of specific and sensitive methods. Toward meeting this need, we investigated whether ion mobility mass spectrometry (IMMS) and MS/MS can distinguish the cis,syn and trans,anti T=T CPDs. Ion mobility can afford baseline separation and give relative mobilities that are in accord with predicted cross sections. Complementing this ability to distinguish isomers is MS/MS collisional activation where fragmentation also distinguishes the two isomers and confirms conclusions drawn from ion mobility analysis. The observations offer early support that ion mobility and MS/MS can enable the distinction of DNA photoproduct isomers.

Direct Synthesis of C4-Acyl Indoles via C-H Acylation.

The direct synthesis of C4-acyl indoles deprived of C2 and C3 substituents has proven to be challenging, with scarce efficient synthetic routes being reported. Herein, we disclose a highly site-selective palladium-catalyzed C-H acylation for the construction of C4-acyl indoles via a Catellani-Lautens cyclization strategy. In addition, we systematically studied the ortho C-H acylation mechanism of iodoaniline through density functional theory (DFT) calculations and combined experimental results to elucidate the principle of high chemoselectivity brought by triazine benzoate as an acylation reagent.

Cellular and Mitochondrial Toxicity of Tolcapone, Entacapone, and New Nitrocatechol Derivatives.

Nitrocatechols are the standard pharmacophore to develop potent tight-binding inhibitors of catechol O-methyltransferase (COMT), which can be used as coadjuvant drugs to manage Parkinson's disease. Tolcapone is the most potent drug of this class, but it has raised safety concerns due to its potential to induce liver damage. Tolcapone-induced hepatotoxicity has been attributed to the nitrocatechol moiety; however, other nitrocatechol-based COMT inhibitors, such as entacapone, are safe and do not damage the liver. There is a knowledge gap concerning which mechanisms and chemical properties govern the toxicity of nitrocatechol-based COMT inhibitors. Using a vast array of cell-based assays, we found that tolcapone-induced toxicity is caused by direct interference with mitochondria that does not depend on bioactivation by P450. Our findings also suggest that (a) lipophilicity is a key property in the toxic potential of nitrocatechols; (b) the presence of a carbonyl group directly attached to the nitrocatechol ring seems to increase the reactivity of the molecule, and (c) the presence of cyano moiety in double bond stabilizes the reactivity decreasing the cytotoxicity. Altogether, the fine balance between lipophilicity and the chemical nature of the C1 substituents of the nitrocatechol ring may explain the difference in the toxicological behavior observed between tolcapone and entacapone.

Synthesis of 2H-Chromeno[2,3-b]tetrahydropyridine Frameworks through Cs2CO3-Promoted Annulation of 2-Amino-4H-chromen-4-ones and 4-Benzylideneoxazol-5(4H)-ones.

This innovative reaction involved the [3+3] annulation of 2-amino-4H-chromen-4-ones and 4-benzylideneoxazol-5(4H)-ones. The process provided quick and easy access to a broad range of structurally diverse and highly functionalized 1,3,4,5-tetrahydro-2H-chromeno[2,3-b]pyridines in moderate to good yields, which possess trans-form C3 and C4 substituents.

Enabling C7 Methylation and Arylation of the Indolyl Core via P(III)‐Directed C−H Functionalization

AbstractPeripheral editing of complex molecules via C−H functionalization removes the pervasive retrosynthetic bias toward pre‐functionalization and taps into the innate, often subtle, stereoelectronic differences between C−H linkages. Using this approach, bioactive molecules and residues can be modified without being beholden to lengthy sequences, thus allowing biochemical hypotheses to be interrogated on accelerated timelines. Herein, the C−H functionalization paradigm is leveraged to tackle C7 C−H functionalization of the biologically important tryptophan core. The devised process, which was expanded to indolyl (and related) systems, utilizes an N‐bound unsymmetrical “designer” phosphine to direct C−H functionalization to the desired position while maintaining operational ease of directing group installation/removal. Quantum mechanically calculated steric properties and activation free energies suggest that this phosphine is hindered enough for favoring C−H functionalization over deactivation pathways but is still easily cleaved by nucleophiles. In addition, the process enables the direct C−H methylation, cyclopropanation, and arylation of tryptophan to yield unnatural amino acid (UAA) building blocks. As a testament to the versatility of this method, a solid phase peptide synthesis (SPPS)‐ready phosphinated tryptophan was incorporated into a pentapeptide and the C−H functionalization/dephosphination sequence was executed with ease. The utility of “on‐peptide” editing was exhibited through the late‐stage functionalization of several pentapeptides with a diverse set of C7 substituents on‐ and off‐resin.

1,4-Dihydropyridine Anions as Potent Single-Electron Photoreductants.

We report the use of simple 1,4-dihydropyridine anions as a general platform for promoting single-electron photoreductions. In the presence of a mild base, 1,4-dihydropyridines were shown to effectively promote the hydrodechlorination and borylation of aryl chlorides and the photodetosylation of N-tosyl aromatic amines under visible light irradiation. Our studies also demonstrate that the C4 substituent can influence the reactivity of these anions, reducing unwanted side reactions like hydrogen atom transfer and back-electron transfer.

SAR Guided Synthesis of Potent, Selective and Artemisinin Synergistic New Imidazole Derivatives with Promising In Vitro Antiplasmodial and In Vivo Antimalarial Activities

AbstractGuided by Structural Activity Relationship (SAR), a series of synthetic tri‐ and tetra‐substituted imidazoles were studied for in vitro antiplasmodial activities against erythrocytic stages of chloroquine sensitive and resistant strains of Plasmodium falciparum using SYBR green I assay. This led to the identification of three potent (IC50 μM) derivatives : Im2 (0.75), Im5 (0.75) and Im22 (0.5). These three lead molecules present unique structural features with a common molecular architecture. Thus, Im2 and Im22 have phenyl rings at positions 4 and 5 of imidazole ring along with n‐hexyl at N3 position, and differ in the C2 substituent (3‐cyclopentyloxy‐4‐methoxy phenyl for Im2) versus naphthyl for Im22. In contrast, positions 4 and 5 in Im5 have pyridyl rings, with unsubstituted N3. Further, curative antimalarial studies with Im2 and Im5 in a Plasmodium berghei (ANKA) infected mouse model of malaria, revealed an increase in average survival time to 28.6±4.2 and 27.4±4 days respectively, as compared to 20.2±2.3 days for untreated control mice. Results of in vitro combination (Im22+Artemisinin) with ΣFIC50: 0.34–0.79, indicated promising synergy and prospects for the use of Im22 as a new constituent in Artemisinin combination therapy (ACT).

Structural modification of C2-substituents on 1,4-bis(arylsulfonamido)benzene or naphthalene-N,N′-diacetic acid derivatives as potent inhibitors of the Keap1-Nrf2 protein-protein interaction

The Keap1-Nrf2-ARE signaling pathway is an attractive therapeutic target for the prevention and treatment of oxidative stress-associated diseases by activating the cellular expression of cytoprotective enzymes and proteins. Small molecule inhibitors can directly disrupt the Keap1-Nrf2 protein-protein interaction (PPI), resulting in elevated levels of Nrf2 protein and subsequent stimulation of related antioxidant responses. Previously, we found that 1,4-bis(arylsulfonamido)benzene or naphthalene-N,N′-diacetic acid derivatives with an ether type C2-substituent on the benzene or naphthalene core exhibited potent inhibitory activities with IC50's in the submicromolar or nanomolar range. We here describe a more detailed structure-activity relationship study around the C2 substituents containing various polar linkers shedding new insight on their binding interactions with the Keap1 Kelch domain. The key observation from our findings is that the substituents at the C2-position of the benzene or naphthalene scaffold impact their inhibitory potencies in biochemical assays as well as activities in cell culture. The biochemical FP and TR-FRET assays revealed that the naphthalene derivatives 17b and 18 with an additional carboxylate at the C2 were the most active inhibitors against Keap1-Nrf2 PPI. In the cell-based assay, the two compounds were shown to be potent Nrf2 activators of the transcription of the Nrf2-dependent genes, such as HMOX2, GSTM3, and NQO1.

A unique dual acyltransferase system shared in the polyketide chain initiation of kidamycinone and rubiflavinone biosynthesis.

The pluramycin family of natural products has diverse substituents at the C2 position, which are closely related to their biological activity. Therefore, it is important to understand the biosynthesis of C2 substituents. In this study, we describe the biosynthesis of C2 moieties in Streptomyces sp. W2061, which produces kidamycin and rubiflavinone C-1, containing anthrapyran aglycones. Sequence analysis of the loading module (Kid13) of the PKS responsible for the synthesis of these anthrapyran aglycones is useful for confirming the incorporation of atypical primer units into the corresponding products. Kid13 is a ketosynthase-like decarboxylase (KSQ)-type loading module with unusual dual acyltransferase (AT) domains (AT1-1 and AT1-2). The AT1-2 domain primarily loads ethylmalonyl-CoA and malonyl-CoA for rubiflavinone and kidamycinone and rubiflavinone, respectively; however, the AT1-1 domain contributed to the functioning of the AT1-2 domain to efficiently load ethylmalonyl-CoA for rubiflavinone. We found that the dual AT system was involved in the production of kidamycinone, an aglycone of kidamycin, and rubiflavinone C-1 by other shared biosynthetic genes in Streptomyces sp. W2061. This study broadens our understanding of the incorporation of atypical primer units into polyketide products.

Radical‐Induced C−H Direct Activation of Quinoxaline via Visible Light Photoredox‐Catalyzed

AbstractThe photocatalytic C(sp2)−H functionalization of quinoxaline derivatives using potassium iodide as photoredox‐mediators has been described. The lower price of potassium iodide compared to standard photocatalysts, readily available substrates, and environmental solvent constitute make this method cost‐effective and interesting. A catalytic amount of KI is applied to the direct activation of C−H bonds for the construction of heterocyclic compound. This system has simple operation, the characteristics of easy to obtain raw materials, high yield and excellent substrate adaptability provide a new method for the synthesis of C2 substituent quinoxalines.

Regioselective ring opening of aziridine for synthesizing azaheterocycle.

Aziridine had different regioselective ring openings depending on the functional group of its alkyl substituent. In the case of the alkyl group bearing γ-ketone at the C2 substituent of aziridine, the ring opening by the hydroxy nucleophile from H2O occurred by attacking the aziridine carbon at the C2 position. This reaction proceeded efficiently in the presence of CF3CO2H. Interestingly, the same starting aziridine ring bearing the alkyl substituent at the C2 position with the γ-silylated hydroxy group instead of γ-ketone led to the ring-opening reaction by the same oxygen nucleophile at the unsubstituted C3 position, with the breakage of the bond between aziridine N1 nitrogen and carbon at C3. These reaction products were cyclized to afford substituted pyrrolidine and piperidine rings with representative examples of congeners of pseudoconhydrine and monomorine.