Blue Aleurone Research Articles

Association between Fusarium head blight resistance and grain colour in wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)

AbstractThe global yield of wheat is limited by Fusarium head blight (FHB), the most damaging disease of wheat accompanied by mycotoxin contamination. Use of resistant cultivars, from an economical point of view, is the most effective control method for plant diseases. Many naturally occurring secondary metabolites in plants are involved in resistance mechanisms against FHB, especially phenolic compounds with antioxidant properties which caused various colouration of the grain in wheat. The objective of this paper was to evaluate the resistance of wheat with different grain colour on the base of accumulation of deoxynivalenol (DON) in grain and other important FHB traits after inoculation with Fusarium culmorum. Visual symptom score (VSS), Fusarium damaged kernels (FDK) and reduction of grain weight per spike (GWS-R) were determined. This study compared current conventional red wheat cultivars and coloured-grain wheat cultivars or lines with blue aleurone, purple pericarp, red grain and white grain. It was found that the cultivars with a purple pericarp (e.g. Rufia) had the lowest DON content and FDK. Statistically significant interactions between grain colour and year were found for all the variables: DON, VSS, FDK, GWS-R. Red grain materials had the lowest DON levels of all the groups studied in 2016 and 2017, but not in 2018. The most constant and second lowest DON levels in all three years were found in the cultivars/lines with purple pericarp.

Molecular cytogenetic identification and nutritional composition evaluation of newly synthesized Triticum turgidum-Triticum boeoticum amphiploids (AABBAbAb).

Triticum boeoticum Boiss. (AbAb, 2n = 2x = 14) is a wheat-related species with the blue aleurone trait. In this study, 18 synthetic Triticum turgidum-Triticum boeoticum amphiploids were identified, which were derived from crosses between T. boeoticum and T. turgidum. Three probes (Oligo-pTa535, Oligo-pSc119.2, and Oligo-pTa713) for multicolor fluorescence in situ hybridization (mc-FISH) were combined with genomic in situ hybridization (GISH) to identify chromosomal composition. Seven nutritional indices (anthocyanins, protein, total essential amino acids TEAA, Fe, Zn, Mn and Cu) were measured, and the nutritional components of 18 synthetic amphiploids were comprehensively ranked by principal component analysis (PCA). The results showed that all three synthetic amphiploids used for cytological identification contained 42 chromosomes, including 14A, 14 B, and 14 Ab chromosomes. The average anthocyanin content was 82.830 μg/g to 207.606 μg/g in the whole meal of the 17 blue-grained lines (Syn-ABAb-1 to Syn-ABAb-17), which was obviously higher than that in the yellow-grained line Syn-ABAb-18 (6.346 μg/g). The crude protein content was between 154.406 and 180.517 g/kg, and the EAA content was 40.193-63.558 mg/g. The Fe, Zn, Mn and Cu levels in the 17 blue-grained lines were 60.55 to 97.41 mg/kg, 60.55-97.41 mg/kg, 35.11 to 65.20 mg/kg and 5.74 to 7.22 mg/kg, respectively, which were higher than those in the yellow-grained line. The contribution of the first three principal components reached 84%. The first principal component was mainly anthocyanins, Fe, Zn and Mn. The second principal component contained protein and amino acids, and the third component contained only Cu. The top 5 Triticum turgidum-Triticum boeoticum amphiploids were Syn-ABAb-11, Syn-ABAb-17, Syn-ABAb-5, Syn-ABAb-8 and Syn-ABAb-4. These amphidiploids exhibited the potential to serve as candidates for hybridization with common wheat, as indicated by comprehensive score rankings, toward enhancing the nutritional quality of wheat.

The Malting Barley Blues

Malting barley is an economically important crop, with strict quality standards. In some sectors of the industry, there is a bias against malting barley with blue aleurone. The rationale behind this bias is not clear. We therefore investigated the relationships between barley color and malting quality using a panel of fall-planted doubled haploid lines from the Oregon State University barley breeding program. The panel was assessed for malting and aleurone color traits using grain from the 2021 harvest and for aleurone color with grain from the 2022 harvest. The white and blue aleurone groups were found to be different for some malting traits across the entire panel of lines, but this was a result of selection history. When a biparental subset of the panel segregating for aleurone color was considered, differences between the color groups were minimal. A genome wide association study showed that the major QTL contributing to aleurone color (on the long arm of chromosome 4H) was independent of the malt quality QTL. It is concluded that there is no basis for a bias against blue aleurone: identifying new malting barley varieties should be based on their malting performance, not their color.

Combining the genes of blue aleurone and purple pericarp in the genotype of spring bread wheat Saratovskaya 29 to increase anthocyanins in grain

Anthocyanins have health-promoting properties and are used to treat many diseases. Purple, blue and black wheat variety contain large quantities of anthocyanins in the outer kernel layers. Anthocyanins in wheat grains accumulate either in the pericarp, under the control of Pp genes, or in the aleurone layer (Ba genes). In black-grained (or deep purple) wheat, anthocyanins can be found in both the pericarp and the aleurone layer. Two lines of Saratovskaya 29 (S29) variety with a black grain color have been created to combine Pp and Ba genes controlling anthocyanins accumulation in one genotype. The lines have been obtained as a result of crossing near isogenic line i:S29Pp1Pp3PF and i:S29Pp1Pp3P with a blue-grain substituted line s:S294E(4B), and subsequent visual selection of plants with black grain coloring in the progeny F4-5. The presence of both pigments in the pericarp and aleurone layer was assessed using light microscopy. The total anthocyanin content in the bran fraction of the new obtained black-grained lines ranged from 145.5 to 241.3 μg/g compared to 135 μg/g of the blue-grain line s:S294E(4B), and 79.4 μg/g – i:S29Pp1PpP and 81.5 μg/g – i:S29Pp1PpPF. The developed lines may be of interest in breeding programs to increase anthocyanins in commercial varieties.

HvGST plays a key role in anthocyanin accumulation in colored barley.

Blue aleurone of barley is caused by the accumulation of delphinidin-based derivatives. Although these compounds are ideal nutrients for human health, they are undesirable contaminants in malt brewing. Therefore, the ability to add and remove this trait easily would facilitate breeding barley for different purposes. Here we identified a glutathione S-transferase gene (HvGST) that was responsible for the blue aleurone trait in Tibetan qingke barley by performing a genome-wide association study and RNA-sequencing analysis. Gene variation and expression analysis indicated that HvGST also participates in the transport and accumulation of anthocyanin in purple barley. Haplotype and the geographic distribution analyses of HvGST alleles revealed two independent natural variants responsible for the emergence of white aleurone: a 203-bp deletion causing premature termination of translation in qingke barley and two key single nucleotide polymorphisms in the promoter resulting in low transcription in Western barley. This study contributes to a better understanding of mechanisms of colored barley formation, and provides a comprehensive reference for marker-assisted barley breeding.

Fine Points of Marker-Assisted Pyramiding of Anthocyanin Biosynthesis Regulatory Genes for the Creation of Black-Grained Bread Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) Lines

Enrichment of grains with anthocyanins is considered a feasible approach to improving the nutritional properties of bread wheat. Here, two black-grained substitution lines with either 4B or 4D chromosomes substituted by wheatgrass (Thinopyrum ponticum) 4Th were created via marker-assisted combining the anthocyanin biosynthesis regulatory genes Pp-1, Pp3 (Purple pericarp), and Ba1 (Blue aleurone) in the genetics background of cv. Saratovskaya 29. The black grains manifested the simultaneous accumulation of anthocyanins in aleurone, and the pericarp layers resulted in the highest total anthocyanin content (TAC), which amounted to approximately the sum of TACs of the purple and blue grains. The lines with substitution 4Th(4B) had long trichomes on the leaves, whereas the lines with substitution 4Th(4D) did not differ from parental cv. Saratovskaya 29. Despite the chromosome substitution having a positive effect on the main spike length, the other yield-related traits (grain weight per main spike, the spike number per plant, and the 1000-grain weight) were decreased in the lines with chromosome substitution. The developed lines together with the parental ones constitute a valuable model for comparative studies and genetic stock for breeding commercial wheat cultivars featuring high levels of anthocyanins in grains.

Integrated transcriptional and metabolomics signature pattern of pigmented wheat to insight the seed pigmentation and other associated features

Anthocyanin biosynthesis in plants is complex, especially in a polyploid monocot wheat plant. Using whole-genome sequencing, transcriptomics, and LC-MS/MS, we investigated anthocyanin pigmentation patterns in (black, blue, and purple) colored wheat seeds. According to differential gene expression profiling, 2AS-MYC, 7DL-MYB, and WD40 regulatory genes control purple pericarp coloration, 4DL-MYC, 2AS-MYC, 7DL-MYB, WD40 control blue aleurone coloration, and 4DL-MYC, 7DL-MYB, WD40 controls black aleurone color. We hypothesized that at least one MYC and MYB isoform is sufficient to regulate the anthocyanin synthesis in pericarp or aleurone. Transcriptomics and metabolomics revealed that the purple pericarp trait is associated with acylated anthocyanins compared to blue aleurone. Based upon the reduced expressions of the genes belonging to the 4D, SSR molecular marker mapping, variant calling using genome sequencing, and IGV browser gene structure visualization, it was inferred that the advanced black and blue wheat lines were substitution lines (4E{4D}), with very small recombinations. Pericarp anthocyanin pigmentation is controlled by a mutation in chromosome 2AS of purple wheat, and environmental variations influence pigmented pericarp trait. The expression patterns of anthocyanin structural and other genes varied in different colored wheat, corroborating differences in agronomical metrics. Ovate seed shape trait in black and blue wheat dragged with 4E chromosome.

Economic valuable indicators of winter bread wheat accessions with different pigmentation of kernels

Purpose and objectives. To screen modern varieties and breeding lines of winter bread wheat with different pigmentation of grain for valuable economic and biochemical characteristics, determining the stability of their expression.
 Materials and methods. Sixty-six winter wheat accessions, including 2 white-grained accessions, 3 accessions with violet kernels, 6 accessions with a blue aleurone layer (the other accessions were red-grained), were studied. The field experiments were conducted in 2017–2020 in compliance with the methods of qualification examination of plant varieties. The total content of phenolic compounds, total antioxidant activity, as well as contents of anthocyanins and micronutrients were determined. Descriptive statistics, correlation, and analysis of variance were used to statistically process the data obtained.
 Results and discussion. The accessions with a pigmented aleurone layer formed ears 4–7 days later than the check variety and were not resistant to diseases. Plants were taller than 109 cm in Ferugineum 1239, Kharkivska 63, Germakianum 2005-87, Viridiferrugineum 2022-87, BLUExRED, Vavilovy 2004-87, Chornobrova, and Chornozerna. It was the productive stem density (which was less than 6.5 points in the accessions with atypical grain color) that determined the yield level. The accessions yielding over 9 t/ha were selected of the red-grained varieties; most of them had been bred in Ukraine. The accessions with blue and violet kernels gave significantly lower yields, but they were characterized by high total content of phenols in meal (over 800 μg/g of gallic acid equivalent), high content of anthocyanins, and high total antioxidant activity (over 500 μg/g of chlorogenic equivalent).
 Conclusions. The accessions with atypical grain color were noticeable for high contents of biologically active substances, but they were significantly inferior to the commercial varieties in terms of yield due to low adaptability to the local conditions. By involving them in hybridization, we obtained material adapted to the conditions of Ukraine; however, further breeding is needed to create a commercial variety.

Progress in hybrid wheat research in Sichuan and future prospects

<p indent="0mm">Sichuan Province is an important wheat-producing region in China. Breeding of hybrid wheat and research related to this topic have been conducted for more than <sc>50 years</sc> in Sichuan. Both three-line and two-line methods have been used for breeding. Three-line hybrid wheat has been developed mainly using cytoplasmic male sterility (CMS) systems derived from other wild relatives. Among them, the <italic>Triticum timopheevii</italic>-based CMS (T-type) system is considered to be the best, and has therefore attracted most attention. Fertility restoration in lines carrying the <italic>timopheevii </italic>cytoplasm is often only partial, so different crossing and selection methods have been proposed to pyramid two or more <italic>Rf</italic> genes in restorer lines. However, this can be difficult to track because there is a lack of functional markers or associated molecular markers. Various restorer lines and combinations have been developed and tested, but no new commercial varieties have been released in Sichuan. The recent cloning of <italic>Rf1</italic> and <italic>Rf2</italic> genes has laid the foundation to develop effective restorer lines that may promote hybrid wheat breeding using the T-type three-line system. Hybrid wheat breeding programs based on the two-line system have generally been more successful in Sichuan. Two systems, photoperiod and temperature-sensitive genic male sterility (PTGMS) and chemical-hybridizing agent-induced male sterility (CHAMS), have been used for two-line hybrid wheat breeding. Mianyang 32 and Mianzamai 168, two hybrid wheat varieties developed using the PTGMS system, have been approved through national yield trials, and another two, Mianzamai 512 and Mianzamai 638, have been approved through provincial yield trials. For the CHAMS system, different types of chemical agents have been screened to determine their effectiveness and suitable doses to induce male sterility, and two new hybrid wheat varieties, Chuanmai 59 and Chuanmai 69, have been approved for release. The Taigu genic dominant male sterile system has also been studied in Sichuan. A new male-sterile line was bred by adding a single rearranged chromosome carrying <italic>Ms2</italic>, <italic>Rht10</italic>, and the blue aleurone layer gene from 4E (<italic>Agropyron elongatum</italic>). When this type of male-sterile line is crossed with a restorer line, about 20% of the progeny are male-sterile lines with short plant height and blue aleurone markers. This demonstrates the low reproduction coefficient of this sterile line. Another problem is the ability to maintain the integrity of the monosomic chromosome during meiosis. Until now, this system has not been used successfully to breed new hybrid wheat varieties in Sichuan. To summarize, there have been some important achievements in hybrid wheat breeding and research in Sichuan. For the sustainable development of hybrid wheat in Sichuan, it is important to improve the existing technical systems and develop and use new hybrid wheat breeding systems. By comparing the advantages and disadvantages of various hybrid wheat systems and combining them with new wheat production practices, we can develop strategies to further improve hybrid wheat in the future from the aspects of heterosis development and utilization, persistent disease resistance, economic benefits, and high yield and quality.

The Effect of the Application of Stimulants on the Photosynthetic Apparatus and the Yield of Winter Wheat

The use of stimulation preparations seems to be a promising means for mitigating the effects of abiotic and biotic stressors. Their significance includes plant organism stimulation and metabolism optimisation, water regime, and nutrition during periods of stress. They help bridge it over and create conditions for rapid regeneration. In a field experiment, the effect of the application of stimulation preparations on cultivars Triticum aestivum L. with different genetic composition was evaluated (donor of blue aleurone colour KM-72-18; donor of a multi-row spike (MRS) KM-94-18). Our results show a predominantly positive effect of the application of stimulants on the yield and thousand-grain weight (TKW). The results obtained were influenced by the year, based on different temperatures and precipitation. Higher yields were achieved in 2020 with higher total precipitation during the grain filling period and with a higher maximum quantum yield of the photosystem II (Fv/Fm). In 2019, this period was significantly dry and warm, which was reflected in a lower yield and TKM, higher proline content in the leaves, and lower Fv/Fm values. In both experimental years, there was a higher yield of the cultivar with blue aleurone (KM-72-18). In the case of cultivars with coloured grains, the promising use of the content substances in cultivars as natural means of increasing resistance to abiotic and biotic stressors seems to be promising.

TbMYC4A Is a Candidate Gene Controlling the Blue Aleurone Trait in a Wheat-Triticum boeoticum Substitution Line.

Triticum boeoticum Boiss (AbAb, 2n = 2x = 14) is one of the sources of the blue grain trait controlled by blue aleurone layer 2 (Ba2). However, the underlying genes have not been cloned. In this study, a transcriptomic comparison between a blue-grained wheat-T. boeoticum substitution line and its wheat parent identified 41 unigenes related to anthocyanin biosynthesis and 29 unigenes related to transport. The bHLH transcription factor gene TbMYC4A showed a higher expression level in the blue-grained substitution line. TbMYC4A contained the three characteristic bHLH transcription factor domains (bHLH-MYC_N, HLH and ACT-like) and clustered with genes identified from other wheat lines with the blue grain trait derived from other Triticeae species. TbMYC4A overexpression confirmed that it was a functional bHLH transcription factor. The analysis of a TbMYC4A-specific marker showed that the gene was also present in T. boeoticum and T. monococcum with blue aleurone but absent in other Triticeae materials with white aleurone. These results indicate that TbMYC4A is a candidate gene of Ba2 controlling the blue aleurone trait. The isolation of TbMYC4A is helpful for further clarifying the genetic mechanism of the blue aleurone trait and is of great significance for breeding blue-grained wheat varieties.

Uncovering the evolutionary origin of blue anthocyanins in cereal grains.

Functional divergence after gene duplication plays a central role in plant evolution. Among cereals, only Hordeum vulgare (barley), Triticum aestivum (wheat) and Secale cereale (rye) accumulate delphinidin-derived (blue) anthocyanins in the aleurone layer of grains, whereas Oryza sativa (rice), Zea mays (maize) and Sorghum bicolor (sorghum) do not. The underlying genetic basis for this natural occurrence remains elusive. Here, we mapped the barley Blx1 locus involved in blue aleurone to an approximately 1.13Mb genetic interval on chromosome 4HL, thus identifying a trigenic cluster named MbHF35 (containing HvMYB4H, HvMYC4H and HvF35H). Sequence and expression data supported the role of these genes in conferring blue-coloured (blue aleurone) grains. Synteny analyses across monocot species showed that MbHF35 has only evolved within distinct Triticeae lineages, as a result of dispersed gene duplication. Phylogeny analyses revealed a shared evolution pattern for MbHF35 in Triticeae, suggesting that these genes have co-evolved together. We also identified a Pooideae-specific flavonoid 3',5'-hydroxylase (F3'5'H) lineage, termed here Mo_F35H2, which has a higher amino acid similarity with eudicot F3'5'Hs, demonstrating a scenario of convergent evolution. Indeed, selection tests identified 13 amino acid residues in Mo_F35H2 that underwent positive selection, possibly driven by protein thermostablility selection. Furthermore, through the interrogation of barley germplasm there is evidence that HvMYB4H and HvMYC4H have undergone human selection. Collectively, our study favours blue aleurone as a recently evolved trait resulting from environmental adaptation. Our findings provide an evolutionary explanation for the absence of blue anthocyanins in other cereals and highlight the importance of gene functional divergence for plant diversity and environmental adaptation.

Phenolic acids in kernels of different coloured-grain wheat genotypes

The content of free, conjugated and bound phenolic acids in 12 wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) genotypes of 4 different grain colours (standard red, yellow endosperm, purple pericarp and blue aleurone) from 2-year field trial was analysed in the present study. Significant increase (8%) in the total phenolic acid content was observed in the dryer year 2017. Five phenolic acids (ferulic, sinapic, p-coumaric, vanillic and 4-hydroxybenzoic) and cis-isomers of ferulic and sinapic acid were determined by HPLC-DAD (high-performance liquid chromatography with a diode-array detector) in grain samples. The total phenolic acid content of coloured wheat groups varied: blue aleurone &amp;gt; purple pericarp &amp;gt; yellow endosperm &amp;gt; red colour (798 &amp;gt; 702 &amp;gt; 693 &amp;gt; 599 µg/g). The fraction of bound phenolic acids was the major contributor to the total phenolic acid content (91.7%) with ferulic acid predominating (85.2%). Conjugated phenolic acids accounted for 7.9% of the total with sinapic and ferulic acid predominating (47.6% and 19.9%). The composition of individual phenolic acids was similar within these two fractions. The remaining 0.4% was represented by the fraction of free phenolic acids in which the phenolic acid profile varied among the individual coloured groups. Ferulic acid prevailed in red and yellow wheats, vanillic in blue and p-coumaric in purple wheats.

Development, identification, and characterization of blue-grained wheat-Triticum boeoticum substitution lines.

Diploid wild einkorn wheat, Triticum boeoticum Boiss (AbAb, 2n = 2x = 14), is a wheat-related species with a blue aleurone layer. In this study, six blue-grained wheat lines were developed from F8 progeny of crosses between common wheat and T. boeoticum. The chromosome constitutions of these lines were characterized by fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) using the oligonucleotide probes Oligo-pTa535-1, Oligo-pSc119.2-1, Oligo-pTa71-2, and (AAC)7. Multicolor FISH using Oligo-pTa535-1, Oligo-pSc119.2-1, and Oligo-pTa71-2 identified all 42 common wheat chromosomes, while Oligo-pTa535-1 and (AAC)7 discriminated the 14 chromosomes of T. boeoticum. FISH revealed that all six blue-grained lines were wheat-T. boeoticum 4Ab (4B) disomic substitution lines. The substitution lines were validated by genotyping using the wheat 55K single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) array containing 53,063 markers. These 4Ab (4B) substitution lines represent novel germplasm for blue-grained wheat breeding. The FISH probes and SNP markers used here can be applied in the development of blue-grained wheat-Triticum boeoticum translocation lines.

Transcriptional analysis of wheat seedlings inoculated with Fusarium culmorum under continual exposure to disease defence inductors.

A facultative parasite of cereals, Fusarium culmorum is a soil-, air- and seed-borne fungus causing foot and root rot, fusarium seedling blight, and especially Fusarium head blight, a spike disease leading to decreased yield and mycotoxin contamination of grain. In the present study, we tested changes in expression of wheat genes (B2H2, ICS, PAL, and PR2) involved in defence against diseases. We first compared expression of the analysed genes in seedlings of non-inoculated and artificially inoculated wheat (variety Bohemia). The second part of the experiment compared expression of these genes in seedlings grown under various treatment conditions. These treatments were chosen to determine the effects of prochloraz, sodium bicarbonate, ergosterol, aescin and potassium iodide on expression of the analysed defence genes. In addition to the inoculated and non-inoculated cultivar Bohemia, we additionally examined two other varieties of wheat with contrasting resistance to Fusarium sp. infection. These were the blue aleurone layer variety Scorpion that is susceptible to Fusarium sp. infection and variety V2-49-17 with yellow endosperm and partial resistance to Fusarium sp. infection. In this manner, we were able to compare potential effects of inductors upon defence gene expression among three varieties with different susceptibility to infection but also between inoculated and non-inoculated seedlings of a single variety. The lowest infection levels were detected in the sodium bicarbonate treatment. Sodium bicarbonate had not only negative influence on Fusarium growth but also positively affected expression of plant defence genes. Expression of the four marker genes shown to be important in plant defence was significantly affected by the treatments. The greatest upregulation in comparison to the water control was identified under all treatments for the B2H2 gene. Only expression of PAL under the ergosterol and prochloraz treatments were not statistically significant.

A bHLH transcription factor TsMYC2 is associated with the blue grain character in triticale (Triticum×Secale).

RNA-Seq was employed to compare the transcriptome differences between the triticale lines and to identify the key gene responsible for the blue aleurone trait. The accumulation of anthocyanins in the aleurone of triticale results in the formation of the blue-grained trait, but the identity of the genes associated with anthocyanin biosynthesis in the aleurone has not yet been reported. In this manuscript, RNA-Seq was employed to compare the transcriptome differences between the triticale lines HM13 (blue aleurone) and HM5 (white aleurone), and to identify the key genes responsible for the blue aleurone trait. There were 32,406 differentially expressed genes between HM13 and HM5. Seventy-three unigenes were homologous to the structural genes related to anthocyanin biosynthesis, and the average transcript level of the structural genes was higher in HM13 than in HM5, so that quantitative differences between the two lines in transcription rates could be the cause of the blue aleurone. The MYB and bHLH transcription factors had two homologous unigenes, but contained only one differentially expressed unigene each. The relative transcript level of bHLH Unigene5672_All (TsMYC2) in HM13 was 42.71 times that in HM5, while the relative transcript level of the MYB transcription factor Unigene12228_All in HM13 was 2.20 times that in HM5. qPCR experiments determined the relative transcript level of TsMYC2 in developing grain, with the expression of TsMYC2 in grain being the highest compared with that in root, stem or leaf tissue. TsMYC2 was homologous to the bHLH transcription factor regulating anthocyanin biosynthesis and contained three entire functional domains: bHLH-MYC_N, HLH and ACT-like, which were important for exercising regulation of anthocyanin biosynthesis as a bHLH transcription factor. Transient expression of ZmC1 and TsMYC2 could induce anthocyanin biosynthesis in white wheat coleoptile cells, demonstrating that TsMYC2 was a functional bHLH transcription factor. These results indicated that TsMYC2 was associated with the blue aleurone trait and could prove to be a valuable gene with which to breed new triticale cultivars with the blue aleurone trait.

Characteristics of flour and dough from purple and blue wheat grain

The characteristics of flours and doughs prepared from wheat grains containing purple pericarp (variety PS Karkulka and Jumiko) and wheat grain containing blue aleurone (variety Skorpion) were tested and compared with commercial wheat to evaluate the applicability of colored wheat in bread making. The fine flours prepared from colored wheat grains significantly differed in the activity of the amylase enzyme, expressed as Hagberg falling number. Zeleny sedimentation volume of flour prepared from grains of the PS Karkulka variety (36 mL) was significantly higher than the values of AF Jumiko and Skropion (34 mL) varieties. The results of uniaxial deformation test indicated that doughs prepared from wheat varieties PS Karkulka and Skropion can be elongated; the dough is, however, weak and can be expected to rupture more easily than dough prepared from variety AF Jumiko, as well as commercial flour. Even if some variations in the values of farinographic dough development time and stability were also observed, clear differences in the behavior of doughs prepared from colored and commercial flours were not found. The differences in dough behavior during heating test were also negligible. It can be concluded that none of the tested colored wheat grains exhibited characteristics completely different from the others or the commercial one. The results may indicate the applicability of all tested colored wheat grains in yeast-leavened bread production.

The effect of genotype, weather conditions and cropping system on antioxidant activity and content of selected antioxidant compounds in wheat with coloured grain

The aim of the study was to evaluate total antioxidant activity (TAA) and total content of carotenoids (TCC), anthocyanins (TAC), phenolics (TPC) and phenolic acids (PAs) in grain of selected pigmented wheat genotypes and traditional control cultivar cultivated under organic and conventional cropping systems in two-year trials. All of the evaluated parameters were significantly affected both by genotype and evaluated environmental factors. While in TPC, PAs and TCC the effect of years prevailed, TAC was affected mainly by genotype. The effect of genotype and year in TAA was comparable. TPC ranged from 581.71 mg/kg (control cv. Annie) to 723.60 mg/kg (cultivar with purple pericarp PS Karkulka), total PAs content from 711.77 mg/kg (cv. PS Karkulka) to 849.47 mg/kg (cv. Skorpion with blue aleurone). TCC varied from 1.56 mg/kg (cv. PS Karkulka) to 5.32 mg/kg (cv. Citrus with yellow endosperm). The highest TAC (63.23 mg/kg) was found in cv. Skorpion, the lowest (12.70 mg/kg) in cv. AF Jumiko with purple pericarp. Anthocyanins were not detected in cvs. Annie and Citrus. TAA varied from 162.68 mg/kg in cv. Annie to 226.71 mg/kg in breeding line KM 53-14 with blue aleurone. Higher TAA and antioxidants contents and lower grain yields were observed in organic cropping system and in drier year 2016.

Rheological properties of dough and baking quality of products using coloured wheat

The experiment included testing of rheological properties of dough as well as the baking quality of bread flour and bran obtained by grinding coloured wheat grains with purple pericarp (cultivars Rosso, Konini and PS Karkulka) and blue aleurone (cv. Scorpion). Common wheat cv. Mulan was used for comparison. Formulas containing 10, 15 and 20% of bran were prepared. The addition of bran increased the water loss during baking by an average of 1.28%, specific volume of bread decreased by 2 to 10 mL, and the ratio number decreased from 0.57 to 0.51. The dynamic oscillatory rheometry simulated processes occurring during baking. A higher content of bran increased the complex viscosity of dough. In the initial stages of heating, the increasing presence of bran promoted dough weakening. Starch gelatinization was also influenced by the content of bran.

Four‐Parent Maize (FPM) Population: Development and Phenotypic Characterization

To measure the effectiveness of multiparent population design in maize (Zea mays L.), an unprecedented, four‐parent maize (FPM) population was developed, incorporating a series of different mating designs. The FPM population incorporated up to three generations of intermating to allow for comparison of traditional biparental, multiparent, and multiparent intermated populations for phenotypic diversity. A total of 1291 inbred lines were evaluated per se with at least one replication among 5551 total progeny plots across two inbred trials 2013 and three inbred trials in 2014 at College Station, TX. These trials were phenotyped for days to anthesis and silking, plant and ear height, leaf rolling, and cob and kernel color (yellow endosperm, blue aleurone). Significant genetic variation was found for all traits analyzed, as well as substantial environmental variation for days to anthesis and days to silking. Overall, single replications of population entries performed well for agronomic trait analysis as indicated by low residual variation. Although mean flowering time did not show a particular relationship to specific subpopulations, greater variance was observed for plant height in some of the FPM populations than in the biparental populations. The creation of this population and the analysis of these traits serve to showcase the advantages and disadvantages of traditional and complex mating designs and reveal the potential to research agronomic and other traits within this population resource.