Biogeography Research Articles

A re-description of the teleosauroid Macrospondylus bollensis (Jaeger, 1828) from the Posidonienschiefer Formation of Germany

Abstract Teleosauroid crocodylomorphs were a successful, diverse and abundant clade that expanded near-globally during the Jurassic Period. Teleosauroids are commonly found in Toarcian strata (Early Jurassic) within Europe, with multiple unique specimens pertaining to four taxa having been discovered in the Posidonienschiefer Formation (= Posidonia Shale) in southwestern Germany. The majority of these specimens have been referred to Macrospondylus bollensis (Jaeger, 1828), a basal machimosaurid species previously assigned to the genus Steneosaurus. Macrospondylus bollensis, as a species, is known to have a long and impressive history; unfortunately, the holotype of Ma. bollensis is poorly understood, rarely referenced in the current literature and is often incorrectly thought to be a teleosauroid specimen from Whitby. The actual holotype (housed at the Museum für Mineralogie und Geologie in Dresden), while badly burned, offers valuable information on basal teleosauroid postcranial material. We provide a detailed re-description of Macrospondylus bollensis, recognize it as a valid taxon and compare it with other Toarcian and machimosaurid teleosauroids. In addition, we evaluate the ecology and biogeographical distribution of Macrospondylus.

Biogeographical Distribution of River Microbial Communities in Atlantic Catchments.

Microbes inhabit virtually all river ecosystems, influencing energy flow and playing a key role in global sustainability and climate change. Yet, there is uncertainty about how various taxonomic groups respond to large-scale factors in river networks. We analysed microbial community richness and composition across six European Atlantic catchments using environmental DNA sequencing. Our findings reveal different drivers for diversity and composition: land use is pivotal for eukaryotes, while climate and geology are crucial for prokaryotes. A strong regional influence shapes these communities, with warmer, drier regions (Portugal and France) differing from cooler, wetter ones (Northern Spain, Ireland and the United Kingdom). These patterns suggest potential indicators for global change, such as taxa resistant to temperature increases and water scarcity, or those sensitive to land use changes.

Bacterial community composition and metabolic characteristics of three representative Marine areas in northern China

Bacteria are essential components of ecosystems, participating in nutrient cycling and biogeochemical processes, and playing a crucial role in maintaining the stability of marine ecosystems. However, the biogeographic distribution patterns of bacterial diversity and metabolic functions in the estuarine and coastal areas of northern China remain unclear. Here, we used metagenomic sequencing to investigate the bacterial community composition and metabolic functions in sediments from the adjacent waters of the Yellow River Estuary, the Yellow Sea Cold Water Mass, and the adjacent waters of the Yangtze River Estuary. Among the 9164 species that were found, the most dominant microbial communities are Pseudomonadota, Actinomycetota, Bacteroidota, and Bacillota, but there are significant differences in the species composition in these three typical habitats. Amino acid metabolism and carbohydrate metabolic pathways were highly enriched. Glycoside hydrolases (GHs) predominate in carbon metabolism across all samples. In nitrogen metabolic pathway, genes related to organic degradation and synthesis are more abundant in the Yellow River Estuary than the other two habitats. In sulfur metabolic pathway, genes involved in assimilatory sulfate reduction are significantly enriched. Assimilatory sulfate reduction might be crucial for sulfur metabolism in coastal regions, with a full assimilatory nitrate reduction pathway found in Desulfobacterota. This research offers insights into the compositional diversity, metabolic functions, and biogeographic distribution patterns of bacterial communities in sediments from typical marine areas of northern China.

Contributions to the fauna of the Turkish oribatid mites (Acari: Oribatida) from Rize province

In this study, oribatid mites extracted from soil and litter samples taken from different localities of Rize province in 2019 were evaluated. Four oribatid taxa belonging to the families Trhypochthoniidae, Microzetidae, Crotoniidae and Ceratozetidae were identified. One family (Microzetidae), one subgenus (Latilamellobates) and four taxa Trhypochthonius silvestris europaeus, Microzetes (Microzetes) caucasicus, Camisia (Camisia) biverrucata, Trichoribates (Latilamellobates) algarvensis are newly recorded in Türkiye. Diagnostic features, ecology and biogeographical distribution of each taxon are given with the addition of SEM photographs.

Mitochondrial genome insights into the phylogenetics and biogeographic evolution of snow trout (Cyprinidae, Schizothorax) in the Tien Shan Mountains

Snow trout (Schizothorax), endemic to the high-altitude freshwater systems of the Tibetan Plateau and the Tien Shan Mountains region, are key components of these ecosystems. This fish lineage may serve as an appropriate model to understand the evolution of biodiversity in the Tien Shan Mountain water ecosystems. However, research has been hindered by poorly understood phylogenetic relationships, unresolved taxonomic classifications, and ambiguous biogeographical histories, particularly in the underexplored western regions of the Tien Shan Mountains. Here, we analyzed three mitochondrial genomes assembled using the next-generation sequencing data of three snow trout species, S. eurystomus, S. fedtschenkoi, and Schizothorax sp., from the western Tien Shan Mountains. These genomes range from 16,584 to 16,592 bp in length and include 13 protein-coding genes (PCGs), 2 rRNAs, 22 tRNAs, and a control region. Our phylogenetic analyses suggest six snow trout from the Tien Shan Mountains region were divided into two distinct clades: clade I comprises S. fedtschenkoi, and Schizothorax sp., and clade II includes S. eurystomus, S. biddulphi, S. pseudoaksaiensis, and S. argentatus. We classified Schizothorax sp. as a valid independent species based on comprehensive phylogenetic trees and DNA barcode genetic distance. The dramatic uplift of the Tien Shan Mountains during the Late Miocene to the Pliocene, followed by periods of isolation on its eastern and western flanks, has driven extensive speciation, contributing to the rich diversity observed today. Notably, S. eurystomus spread westward along the Pamir-Tien Shan corridor, shaping the region’s current biogeographical distribution of snow trout species. Our findings not only clarify the evolutionary histories of snow trout in the Tien Shan Mountains but also advance our understanding of the mechanisms shaping the rich biodiversity.

Two new species of ectoparasitic microfungi within the Hesperomyces virescens complex from Algeria, Italy, and Malaysia

Arthropods are hosts to a variety of parasitic fungi, including those within the order of Laboulbeniales (Ascomycota, Laboulbeniomycetes). Species in the genus Hesperomyces are specialized in growing on ladybirds (Coccinellidae). Recent studies have uncovered multiple cryptic species within the Hesperomyces virescens species complex. They found that these species are segregated not only by host, but also by a geographic component. Here, we describe two new species in this species complex, based on morphological, molecular phylogenetic, ecological, and geographical evidence: Hesperomyces chilocori-bipustulati sp. nov. on Chilocorus bipustulatus from the Mediterranean region, and He. coccinellae-transversalis sp. nov. on Coccinella transversalis from Peninsular Malaysia. Hesperomyces chilocori-bipustulati is the second species known to associate with a representative of the genus Chilocorus, after He. virescens sensu stricto which was described from Ch. stigma from the USA. The findings of this paper contribute to our understanding of the diversity, host specificity, and biogeographical distribution within the Hesperomyces virescens species complex and highlight the need for further integrative taxonomy approaches in Laboulbeniales.

A new and a known species of the genus Butlerius Goodey, 1929 (Nematoda: Diplogastridae) from India and their relationship with congeners

ABSTRACT Butlerius indicus sp. n. is described and illustrated along with a redescription of B. micans Pillai and Taylor, 1968 collected in India. Butlerius indicus sp. n. is characterised by an elongate stoma; barrel-shaped cheilostom – having anterior walls arched inward anteriorly; isotopic and isomorphic gymnostom; anisotopic and anisomorphic stegostom, dorsal metastegostomal wall with anteriorly directed tooth, subventral walls without armature; spicules slender, arcuate with rounded capitulum and bifid distal tips; gubernaculum long, more than half of spicule length with a distal sleeve and nine pairs of genital sensilla. The present population of B. micans measures 667–864 µm long, a = 26.0–33.6, b = 5.5–6.0, c = 2.5–3.1, c’ = 15.7–28.0 and V = 38–42%. Males have spicules 23–26 µm long, gubernaculum 11–15 µm long and nine pairs of genital sensilla. Additional information is provided for the cuticle, stoma structure and female reproductive system. A cladogram based on important morphological traits and a key to species are also provided besides their biogeographic distribution. http://www.zoobank.org/urn:lsid:zoobank.org:pub:916A9285-E38C-42BE-9913-8AFFCCB8156C

Biogeographic Insights Into the Late Miocene Diversification of the Giant Deep-Ocean Amphipod Eurythenes.

Mechanisms driving the spatial and temporal patterns of species distribution in the Earth's largest habitat, the deep ocean, remain largely enigmatic. The late Miocene to the Pliocene (~23-2.58 Ma) is a period that was marked by significant geological, climatic, and oceanographic changes. This transitional period spurred widespread species diversification, particularly among widely distributed benthic scavengers, such as amphipods. Here, we take step toward understanding the long-term evolutionary processes of amphipod colonization and diversification in the deep ocean by focusing on the model genus Eurythenes S. I. Smith in Scudder, 1882. These large-bodied scavengers play key roles in benthic communities. We constructed a time-calibrated phylogeny using two mitochondrial DNA genes by analyzing publicly available data on 14 species of Eurythenes across a global depth range from 839 to 8081 m. The resulting phylogenetic tree reveals a diverse clade, with a common ancestor originating around 11.81 Ma. A gradual increase in the effective population size of Eurythenes was observed, particularly during the Pliocene (~4 Ma). The net diversification rate remained almost constant, with slight increases between the Miocene and Pliocene (~8-4 Ma), and most new species appeared during the latter period. Additionally, reconstruction of the ancestral area suggested that the common ancestor of Eurythenes had a global distribution. A combination of dispersal and sympatric processes, along with environmental factors, such as changes in ocean temperature and sea level, contributed to the present biogeographic distribution of these species. Our findings highlight the importance of historical events, such as plate tectonics and changes in deep-water circulation, in driving the rapid speciation of Eurythenes and underscore their essential role in shaping deep-ocean biodiversity.

Biogeographical distribution of gut microbiome composition and function is partially recapitulated by fecal transplantation into germ-free mice.

Fecal microbiota transplantation has been vital for establishing whether host phenotypes can be conferred through the microbiome. However, whether the existing microbial ecology along the mouse gastrointestinal tract can be recapitulated in germ-free mice colonized with stool remains unknown. We first identified microbes and their predicted functions specific to each of six intestinal regions in three cohorts of specific pathogen-free mice spanning two facilities. Of these region-specific microbes, the health-linked genus Akkermansia was consistently enriched in the lumen of the small intestine compared to the colon. Predictive functional modeling on 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing data recapitulated in shotgun sequencing data revealed increased microbial central metabolism, lipolytic fermentation, and cross-feeding in the small intestine, whereas butyrate synthesis was colon-enriched. Neuroactive compound metabolism also demonstrated regional specificity, including small intestine-enriched gamma-aminobutyric acid degradation and colon-enriched tryptophan degradation. Specifically, the jejunum and ileum stood out as sites with high predicted metabolic and neuromodulation activity. Differences between luminal and mucosal microbiomes within each site of the gastrointestinal tract were largely facility-specific, though there were a few consistent patterns in microbial metabolism in specific pathogen-free mice. These included luminal enrichment of central metabolism and cross-feeding within both the small intestine and the colon, and mucosal enrichment of butyrate synthesis within the colon. Across three cohorts of germ-free mice colonized with mice or human stool, compositional and functional region specificity were inconsistently reproduced. These results underscore the importance of investigating the spatial variation of the gut microbiome to better understand its impact on host physiology.

First record of the alien sponge Paraleucilla magna(Family Amphoriscidae) on the Moroccan Mediterranean coast

The alien calcareous sponge Paraleucilla magna Klautau, Monteiro & Borojevic, 2004 was detected for the first time in Morocco, which represents an important contribution to the understanding of alien species in the region. The species was recorded at aquaculture facilities in Amsa and M’diq during February and March 2024. Specimens were found at depths ranging from 1 to 4 meters, cohabiting with the Mytilus galloprovincialis on artificial hard substrates. Numerous individuals ranging in size from 1 cm to 4 cm were observed. The introduction of P. magna into Moroccan waters is likely due to biofouling on aquaculture facilities and vessels, which is consistent with its spread in other Mediterranean areas. This finding enhances our knowledge of its biogeographical distribution and ecological impact in the Mediterranean and underscores the importance of monitoring its proliferation and potential effects on local ecosystems.

Target enrichment data reveal rapid divergence with reticulate evolution of Maianthemum (Asparagaceae: Convallarioideae) in the Himalayan‐Hengduan Mountains and eastern Asia

AbstractUnderstanding plant diversity and the phylogenetic divergences in the Northern Hemisphere is essential for in‐depth evolutionary studies and conservation efforts. Maianthemum is an ideal example to explore plant diversification processes in the Northern Hemisphere, with more than 35 species widely distributed in forests in North to Central America, Europe and eastern Asia. Yet the phylogenetic relationships within Maianthemum remain elusive. In this study, we reconstructed a well‐supported phylogenetic framework of Maianthemum and explored possible gene introgressions and reticulate evolution using nuclear and chloroplast genomes based on the target enrichment Hyb‐Seq approach. Both nuclear and chloroplast phylogenetic results supported three clusters corresponding to their biogeographic distribution of the New World, the Himalayan‐Hengduan Mountains, and the north temperate zone, respectively. The genus was inferred to be most likely originated in North America with migrations into Central America and eastern Asia in the late Miocene. Our results suggested that both incomplete lineage sorting and hybridizations/introgressions along with geographic isolation have contributed to the rapid divergence of Maianthemum in eastern Asia, which may represent a complex model for the evolutionary radiation of plants in eastern Asia and even the Northern Hemisphere.

Biogeographical influences on the nutritional and sensory attributes of Pearlspot Cichlid (Etroplus suratensis)

The pearlspot cichlid (Etroplus suratensis) occurs naturally in the water bodies of peninsular India and Sri Lanka. Six stations across three major lakes in Peninsular India are used to analyze the effects of biogeographical distribution on the nutrient profile, meat quality, and organoleptic qualities of pearlspot. The analysis included parameters such as gut content, proximate composition, fatty acid and amino acid profiles, meat colour, texture, and organoleptic acceptability, along with water parameters. The nutrient profile and sensory attributes of pearlspot are significantly influenced by biogeographical factors. The fish from higher saline areas Azhikode and Kanjiracode with 18.23 and 15.13 ppt, had better sensory acceptance. These sites had a higher proportion of diatoms (75.91%) and zooplankton (3.19%), respectively. The fish from Azhikode also had higher levels of protein (18.31%). The ratio of essential to non-essential amino acids was found to be optimal in all the stations. Azhikode samples had the highest concentration of polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) (16.42%) and n3/n6 ratio (1.81). The meat color and texture of the fish samples significantly differed among the stations. The study demonstrates the importance of biogeographical factors on flavor, texture, and nutritional profile. The findings indicate that the production of nutritionally and organoleptically superior fish is possible by ensuring a proper rearing environment and diet.

Spumellarian, collodarian, and entactinarian radiolarians observed in sediment traps from the southern Ionian Sea (eastern mediterranean)

Based on sediment trap material collected from the southern Ionian Sea (Eastern Mediterranean), this study describes and illustrates 54 radiolarian species, 48 of which are spumellarians, 3 collodarians and 3 entactinarians. The presence of Larcopyle buetschlii chenmuhongi, Phorticium polycladum, and Polysolenia collina is reported for the first time from the Mediterranean Sea. We also identified for the first time Spongodendron macrodoras in the eastern Mediterranean Sea, previously known only from the western Mediterranean. Despite their geographical proximity, only six species are in common with the radiolarian fauna of the Adriatic Sea. We reviewed the biogeographical distribution and the known depth habitat of all species identified here at the species level. Most of them are known from tropical to temperate regions, although we also encountered few species with cold-water affinities such as Lithelius minor, Lithelius nautiloides, Hexacromyum enthacanthum, Rhizosphaera mediana, and Spongodiscus resurgens. Most of the encountered species are surface to sub-surface dwellers, including several known symbiont-bearing species, and only few are deep-dwellers, such as Hexacromyum enthacanthum, Tetrapetalon echinaster, Lithelius nautiloides and Lithelius minor.

Gaidropsarus mauritanicus (Gadiformes, Gaidropsaridae) a new three-bearded rockling from a deep-water coral ecosystem with a genetically verified biogeographical distribution of the genus and notes to its ecology and behavior.

Gaidropsarus mauritanicus sp. nov. is described from one specimen collected using a grab sample from the Tanoûdêrt Canyon (ca. 20° N) off Mauritania at a depth of 595 m. The new species was further observed during eight remotely operated vehicle (ROV) dives along the Mauritanian slope southwards down to the Tiguent Coral Mound Complex (~17° N) in a bathymetric range between 613 and 416 m. It can be distinguished from congeners by a combination of characteristics, including large eyes (38.1% head length [HL]), large head (25.8% standard length [SL]), elongated pelvic fins (35.7% SL), low number of vertebrae (44), and coloration (pinkish with a dorsal darker brownish hue and bright blotches along the dorsal-fin base). A species-delimitation analysis performed with available cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1 (COI) sequences affiliated to the genus Gaidropsarus additionally supported the validity of the new species. Video analyses showed a deep-water coral-associated and protection-seeking behavior, which may explain why the species has remained undescribed until now. Additional ROV footage from separate deep-water coral sites in the North Atlantic and Mediterranean Sea further highlights the ecological behavior and hidden diversity of bathyal three-bearded rocklings. Here, we additionally discuss the biogeographical distribution of all genetically verified Gaidropsarus spp. in combination with genetic data and morphological characters. G. mauritanicus sp. nov. is closely related to a species from Tasmania (43° S), a geographical point furthest among the studied samples, which may hint to an important influence of (paleo-) oceanography on the distributions of Gaidropsarus species.

Local and Regional, Not Latitudinal, Variation in Microclimate and Bedrock Shapes Moss‐Associated Diatom Communities in Greenland

ABSTRACTAimGreenland is among the most rapidly changing regions on Earth, with climate change having a profound impact on its terrestrial ecosystems. Here, moss‐associated diatoms hold great potential as sensitive biological indicators to monitor responses to climate change, but their diversity, community structure and biogeography remain virtually unexplored. Our study, thus, aims to (1) explore the diversity and community structure of moss‐associated diatoms in Greenland and (2) assess the environmental and spatial variables driving their geographic distribution, establishing a baseline for their use as bio‐indicators of climate change.LocationGreenland, spanning a gradient from high to subarctic regions.TaxonMoss‐associated diatoms (Bacillariophyta).MethodsLM and SEM analysis was conducted on 175 terrestrial moss samples collected from preserved herbarium material and fresh samples (1988–2021) from high, low and subarctic localities in Greenland. Biogeographical distributions, biodiversity patterns and community structure were examined in relation to environmental and spatial factors using Kruskal–Wallis, Spearman's Rank, ordination, SIMPROF and variation partitioning analyses.ResultsA total of 544 diatom taxa (66 genera) were identified, with nearly half potentially new to science. Community structure was predominantly influenced by moisture, pH, conductivity and temperature. Local variation in microclimate and bedrock, thus, explained more variation in the diatom communities than latitude‐related environmental gradients. Surprisingly, temperature had a negative impact on diatom richness, probably due to its adverse effect on moisture, highlighting the vulnerability of Arctic moss diatoms to global warming.Main ConclusionsThis study provides the first comprehensive analysis of Greenland's moss‐associated diatoms, highlighting their high diversity and sensitivity to environmental changes. Our findings underscore their potential as indicators for monitoring climate change in the Arctic, with moisture, pH, conductivity and temperature being critical factors influencing their communities, laying the groundwork for future research and monitoring efforts.

Temperature Effects on the Distribution of Aragonitic and Calcite‐Secreting Epifaunal Bivalves

ABSTRACTAimTo test if temperature significantly influences the global biogeographic distribution of marine epifaunal bivalves via their skeletal mineralogy.LocationGlobal.TaxaMarine, epifaunal bivalves.MethodsThe skeletal mineralogy of 45,789 epifaunal bivalve occurrences from 669 species from the Ocean Biodiversity Information System (OBIS) was related to sea surface temperatures from Bio‐ORACLE. Binomial regression was used to assess the influence of temperature and seasonality on the distribution of aragonitic and calcite‐secreting bivalve occurrences, aggregated in equal‐area grid cells.ResultsThe proportion of aragonitic bivalve occurrences significantly increases with mean annual temperature in our global analysis and most marine biogeographic realms. A greater prevalence of calcite‐secreting bivalves in seasonal climates could be shown at low mean annual temperatures at the global scale but not within biogeographic realms.Main ConclusionsThe global biogeographic distribution of epifaunal bivalves is significantly influenced by water temperature via their skeletal mineralogy. The mechanism driving this pattern is best explained by the temperature modulation of the effect of Mg2+ on calcite growth. Although this Mg2+ effect predicts an advantage for aragonite secretion at higher temperatures, poleward migration in response to higher temperature extremes will expose tropical taxa to cooler temperatures in the cold season, which may impede aragonite secretion in taxa not adapted to these climates.SignificanceOur results suggest that skeletal mineralogy is likely to influence ocean warming‐induced migration patterns.

Climate change alters the future of natural floristic regions of deep evolutionary origins

Biogeographic regions reflect the organization of biotas over long evolutionary timescales but face alterations from recent anthropogenic climate change. Here, we model species distributions for 189,269 vascular plant species of the world under present and future climates and use this data to generate biogeographic regions based on phylogenetic dissimilarity. Our analysis reveals declines in phylogenetic beta diversity for years 2040 to 2100, leading to a future homogenization of biogeographic regions. While some biogeographic boundaries will persist, climate change will alter boundaries separating biogeographic realms. Such boundary alterations will be determined by altitude variation, heterogeneity of temperature seasonality, and past climate velocity. Our findings suggest that human activities may now surpass the geological forces that shaped floristic regions over millions of years, calling for the mitigation of climate impacts to meet international biodiversity targets.

Comprehensive Review of Maple Trees: Evolution, Biogeographical Distribution, Ecology, and Economic Significance with Emphasis on Canada

Comprehensive Review of Maple Trees: Evolution, Biogeographical Distribution, Ecology, and Economic Significance with Emphasis on Canada

Maastrichtian palaeoenvironments and palaeoclimate reconstruction in southern South America (Patagonia, Argentina) based on fossil fungi and algae using open data resources

ABSTRACT The use of non-pollen palynomorphs (NPP), particularly fossil fungi and algae, as palaeobiological proxies for Late Cretaceous palaeoenvironmental and palaeoclimatic reconstructions of warm-to-hot greenhouse conditions, can enhance our understanding of climate change impacts on modern Patagonian environments. This study aimed to reconstruct the Maastrichtian palaeoenvironment and palaeoclimate in the Cañadón Asfalto Basin (CAB, Chubut Province) by testing these NPPs as proxies using the Nearest Living Relative method (NLR). Moreover, using modern ecological requirements from open-source databases, such as GBIF and processing it with an open-source, cross-platform tool like QGIS, linked with Köppen-Geiger shapefiles, provided evidence of climate-driven palaeo-distribution patterns of fungal and algal diversity at CAB. Applying modern ecological requirements and biogeographic distribution data, we reconstructed the palaeoclimate as temperate with evenly distributed precipitation and warm summers, corresponding to the Cfb climate zone in Köppen-Geiger classifications. Additionally, our methodology produced reliable results regarding Cenozoic floras’ physiognomies based on fossil fungi, revealing a transition from sparsely wooded areas with palms and prairies to complex forest ecosystems with palms, deciduous trees, and shrubland. Furthermore, testing Cretaceous algae with the NLR method, for the first time, provided comprehensive insights into past water body characteristics, including trophic state and water quality.

Crocosmia x crocosmiiflora: leaf cuticle and bioclimatic variability

A chemical, morphological, structural, optical, and histological analysis of the waxes of the Crocosmia x crocosmiiflora leaf surfaces was here conducted. The wettability of the adaxial and abaxial leaf surfaces was also examined in detail. The results obtained were correlated with the bioclimatic (thermopluviometric) characterization of this species, based on the wild occurrence of its parental species (C. aurea and C. pottsii). To get a better insight into the potential correlation existent between chemical/morphological/structural characteristics and thermopluviometric data, the data for Crocosmia x crocosmiiflora were subsequently contrasted with the corresponding body of information we reported earlier for seven species with different biogeographic distributions (Ceratonia siliqua L., Cercis siliquastrum L., Arundo donax L., Agapanthus africanus (L.) Hoffmann, Corymbia citriodora (Hook), Eucalyptus gunnii Hook. (Hook), and Eucalyptus globulus Labill). The results of this comparison highlight major correlations between the bioclimatic variability of the species and the chemical composition of waxes, but low or no apparent correlations with the other parameters examined. This conclusion strongly suggests the relevance of the chemical composition of leaf cuticle waxes in describing the response of vascular plants to the environmental matrix.